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Significant changes in climate variables in the last decades resulted in changes of perceived climate conditions. However, there are only few studies discussing long-lasting changes in bioclimatic conditions. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to present the temporal and spatial distribution of hazardous heat and cold stress conditions in different regions of Poland. Its focus is on long-lasting changes in such conditions in the period 1951–2018. To assess changes in hazardous thermal stress conditions, the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) was used. UTCI values at 12 UTC hour (respectively 1 pm winter time, 2 pm summer time) were calculated daily based on air temperature, relative humidity, total cloud cover and wind speed at 24 stations representing the whole area of Poland. We found that the greatest changes were observed in minimum (1.33 °C/10 years) and average (0.52 °C/10 years) UTCI values as well as in cold stress frequency (− 4.00 days per 10 years). The changes vary seasonally and regionally. The greatest increase in UTCImin and decrease in cold stress days were noted from November to March and had the highest values in north-east and east Poland, and also in the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains. The trends in maximum UTCI are much smaller and not always positive. The spatially averaged trend in UTCImax for Poland as a whole was 0.35 °C/10 years and the increase in heat stress days was 0.80 days/10 years. The highest increases in UTCImax and heat stress days were noted in eastern and south-eastern Poland. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00484-020-02069-7.

The assessment of thermal stress stimuli in Poland was based on the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI). Daily values of UTCI at 24 stations selected to represent the whole area of Poland at 12:00 UTC were calculated over the period 1951-2018. Various UTCI characteristics, i.e., spatial averages of daily, monthly and annual values, daily spatial contrasts (i.e., the difference between daily highest and lowest UTCI values) were defined in each of 8 bioclimatic regions of Poland. Ten-year trends for UTCI and spatial contrast values were counted and their statistical significance was analysed. A statistically significant increase in UTCI values was found in all the regions of Poland. However, contrasts in thermal stress both for Poland as a whole and in most of the regions decreased significantly, especially in the north-east of Poland, the country’s coldest region. This indicates a reduction in the stimuli of thermal environment in Poland and in most of the individual regions.

Mountain areas create specific features of local climates (by modification of air circulation, insolation, air temperature, precipitation, wind regime) and greatly affect ambient weather conditions which influence different kinds of human (climbing, skiing, walking, etc.). However, till now only few studies of human bioclimate in individual mountain ridges in Europe were done. The aim of the present study is to assess thermal stress features represented by Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) in nine mountain systems in Central and Eastern Europe. 37 meteorological stations located at altitudes of 237-3580 m above sea level were considered. The data represent midday observational term and cover the period 2000-2017. Mean, highest and lowest annual thermal stress values and annual frequency of cold and heat stress days are analysed The conducted studies have demonstrated that in the examined mountain systems thermal stress conditions are dependent (though to a various extent) mostly on altitude (UTCI values and heat stress days decrease and number of cold stress days rise significantly due to increase of altitude). However, impacts of latitude and longitude is well seen only in altitude belt of 300-1000 m a.s.l.

While significant increases in air temperature are being observed in the context of climate change, precipitation characteristics, indicators and indices seem to be changing in a more regionally-variable manner. High-mountain areas prove particularly subject to fluctuations and changes of climate, given that mountains serve as barriers to masses of air flowing over them, with the result that atmospheric precipitation totals are high in the context of the so-called orographic rainfall. Overall, the Chornohora represents the highest range anywhere in Ukraine’s Carpathian Mts, as there are six peaks over 2000 m a.s.l. capable of serving as a barrier running NW-SE. Nevertheless, the main ridge of the High Tatras (of the Slovakia-Poland borderland) is even higher and runs W-E. Each massif is some 30 km in length, while the two ranges are separated by a distance of almost 350 km. Main drainage divides run along the highest ridges here, with the Tatras separating the drainage basins of the Vistula and Danube, while the Chornohora represent a divide between the Prut and Tysa basins. The aim here has been to present characteristics of atmospheric precipitation in Tatra and Chornohora Mts. as these are seen to relate to atmospheric circulation. To this end, the dependent relationship between intensity of precipitation and atmospheric circulation was examined exhaustively, with changes in the latter considered from the point of view of intensity of precipitation in the massifs under study, and with trends for precipitation over the study period also looked for.The Niedźwiedź (2017) classification of types of atmospheric circulation was applied, with annual values calculated for circulation indicators P (a W-E inflow), S (a S-N inflow) and C (a cyclonic/anticyclonic inflow). Overall, the study drew on 1961‑2015 daily precipitation data from the north-eastern slope of Chornohora Mts. (as represented by Ukraine’s Pozhyzhevska weather station, PO, 1451 m a.s.l.), as well as the north slope of the Tatra Mts. (as represented by Poland’s Hala Gasienicowa weather station, HG, 1520 m a.s.l.).An air inflow from western directions was found to have prevailed over 28% of the days in the average year (Fig. 1). The most frequent types involved here were: Ka (12%), Bc (10%), Wc (10%) and Wa (8%). During the summer months (JJA), it is the Ka and Bc types that are even more frequent (present on approx. 15% of summer days). Types Wc and Wa in turn occur more frequently in winter (DJF) – respectively 13% and 12% of the time. In autumn, these types reach a level of occurrence around 10%.At 1712 mm, the average annual rainfall total for Tatra Mts is higher than that for the Chornohora (on 1446 mm). While the seasonal distribution of rainfall in spring and autumn looks almost the same in the two massifs, winter brings more precipitation in the Chornohora, while summer is a wetter season in the Tatras (Fig. 2). Largest amounts of precipitation nevertheless fall in the warm half-year, in the circumstances of N+NEa advection, cyclonic situations and under arctic, polar-marine or polar-marine transformed air masses (Figs. 3 and 4).The largest changes over time are to be observed for the zonal inflow index (P) and the cyclonic index (C). The P index points to increased numbers of days with a western circulation, while the C index confirms the domination of anticyclonic circulation (Fig. 5). The trend for annual rainfall totals is an upward one overall in both regions, but in neither does this achieve statistical significance (Fig. 6). Equally, there is a downward trend line for numbers of days featuring precipitation (RRdays) in the cases of both the Chornohora and Tatra ranges (equal to -7.3 days/10 years and -7.59 days/10 years respectively) (Fig. 7). On the other hand, the trend for numbers of days with higher rainfall, e.g. with RRdays>10mm is upward for the Chornohora (at +1.23 days/10 years), but downward for the Tatra Mts (at -0.6 days/10 years) (Fig. 8).

UTCI, although it was developed with the participation of scientists from 22 countries, it has shortcomings and people using it face various obstacles. The difficulties include wide range of issues: from different availability of meteorological data in individual countries, through the kind of air temperature which should be properly used in calculations, or the need of recalculation of wind speed. However the biggest subject concern algorithms for mean radiant temperature (Mrt) calculations, different models and programs which simplify calculations of this complex index though introduce different approximations and, as a result, many false results. The paper presents also wide range of UTCI applications in urban bioclimate studies and bioclimatic mapping, climate-human health researches and biometeorological forecasts which were the primary purpose of the index creation, but also applications in tourism and recreation or even in bioclimate change analysis.

Outdoor tourism and recreational activities strongly depend on actual meteorological conditions. Traditionally, in three studied regions, the peak of tourists’ streams concentrates in summer months. In the present study, we assess suitability of weather conditions for various forms of outdoor tourism in different regions of Serbia, Poland and Ukraine. Additionally, how the location of the station differentiates temporal patterns of weather suitability will be discussed. To analyse the suitability of weather conditions for various forms of outdoor recreation, we have chosen 23 meteorological stations of the national weather networks which represent different tourism areas and destinations. For each weather station, daily data for the period 2000–2017 of air temperature, relative humidity, total cloud cover and wind speed (at 10 m above ground) for 12 UTC as well as the daily maximum and minimum temperature, precipitation totals and snow cover depth were applied. Suitability of climate for outdoor recreation and tourism is assessed by the Weather Suitability Index (WSI) based on Błażejczyk’s bio-thermal weather classification. The results of research show that passive forms of recreation (sun and air bathing) are preferred mostly in months from May till August or September. For the active forms of recreation, weather in summer months is very oppressive, especially in the resorts located in the south (Serbia, southern Ukraine). Active forms of recreation are preferred there in autumn, winter and spring months. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00484-020-01984-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The present study attempts to assess changes in soccer players’ physical and technical activity profiles due to thermal stress, measured with the Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI), in training centres and during matches of the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. The study also verifies the theoretical models of soccer players’ physiological parameters. The study sample consisted of 945 observations of 340 players of national teams taking part in the World Cup in Russia. The measured variables included physical activities: total distance covered, distances covered with an intensity of 20–25 km/h, number of sprints; technical activities: number of shots, number of passes, pass accuracy and physiological indicators: evaporative water loss and heart rate. In addition, the final ranking places of each national team were also used in the study. The UTCI was calculated based on meteorological data recorded at training centres and during matches. The UTCI records were then classified into two ranges: NTS—no thermal stress (UTCI 9–26 °C) and TS—thermal stress (UTCI > 26 °C). Climatic conditions at soccer training centres assessed as involving “no thermal stress” are found to be more beneficial for increasing the total distance covered and the number of sprints performed by players during a match. The theoretical models for determining soccer players’ physiological parameters used in the study reduce the players’ heart rate effort and evaporative water loss, which is in line with findings in studies by other authors. The climatic conditions at soccer training centres and during tournament matches should be taken into account in planning preparations for future World Cup tournaments, especially those in hotter countries.

Chornohora is the highest mountain ridge in the Ukrainian Carpathians with 6 peaks of an altitude over 2,000 m above sea level (Hoverla is the highest peak, 2,061 m a.s.l). Its climate is explored less than other mountain ridges in Europe. The massif is a climatic barrier for air masses on NW-SE line. To describe the climate of this area data from the weather station at Pozhyzhevska alpine meadow for the years 1961–2010 were used. The seasonal and long-term variability of air temperature, atmospheric precipitation and snow cover were investigated on the background of air circulation types. The results show that general features of Chornohora climate depend both, on elevation above sea level and on air circulation. Lowest temperature is observed at N-NE circulation and highest precipitation – at western air inflow. Long-term changes of examined climate elements in Chornohora show significant increase in mean (0.13°/10 years) and minimum (0.22°C/10 years) air temperature as well as in snow cover depth and number of snowy days.

The health of individuals and societies depends on different factors including atmospheric conditions which influence humans in direct and indirect ways. The paper presents regional variability of some climate related diseases (CRD) in Poland: salmonellosis intoxications, Lyme boreliosis, skin cancers (morbidity and mortality), influenza, overcooling deaths, as well as respiratory and circulatory mortality. The research consisted of two stages: 1) statistical modelling basing on past data and 2) projections of CRD for three SRES scenarios of climate change (A1B, A2, B1) to the year 2100. Several simple and multiply regression models were found for the relationships between climate variables and CRD. The models were applied to project future levels of CRD. At the end of 21st century we must expect increase in: circulatory mortality, Lyme boreliosis infections and skin cancer morbidity and mortality. There is also projected decrease in: respiratory mortality, overcooling deaths and influenza infections.

This study presents a spatiotemporal analysis of bioclimatic comfort conditions for Iran using mean daily meteorological data from 1995 to 2014, analyzed through Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) index and Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) indices, and bioclimatic clustering. The results of this study demonstrate that due to the climate variability across Iran during the year, there is at any point in time a location with climatic condition suitable for tourism. Mean values demonstrate maxima in bioclimatic comfort indices for the country in late winter and spring and minima for summer. Seven statistically significant clusters in bioclimatic indices were identified. Comparing these with clustering performed on PET and UTCI, the maximum overlaps between the two indices. In the following, the outputs of this research showed that most appropriate bioclimatic clustering for Iran includes seven clusters. These clustering locations according to climatic suitability for tourism provide a valuable contribution to tourism management in the country, particularly through marketing destinations to maximize tourist flow.

Heat stress is one of the environmental factors influencing the health of individuals and the wider population. There is a large body of research to document significant increases in mortality and morbidity during heat waves all over the world. This paper presents key results of research dealing with heat-related mortality (HRM) in various cities in Poland which cover about 25% of the country's population. Daily mortality and weather data reports for the years 1991-2000 were used. The intensity of heat stress was assessed by the universal thermal climate index (UTCI). The research considers also the projections of future bioclimate to the end of twenty-first century. Brain storming discussions were applied to find necessary adaptation strategies of healthcare system (HCS) in Poland, to minimise negative effects of heat stress. In general, in days with strong and very strong heat stress, ones must expect increase in mortality (in relation to no thermal stress days) of 12 and 47%, respectively. Because of projected rise in global temperature and heat stress frequency, we must expect significant increase in HRM to the end of twenty-first century of even 165% in comparison to present days. The results of research show necessity of urgent implementation of adaptation strategies to heat in HCS.

Mean annual and monthly averages of mean (Tmean), maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin) air temperature from seven stations in Iraq were analysed to detect the inter-annual variation, long-term temporal and spatial trends distribution over the period 1941–2013. Due to non-homogeneous problems, this period has been divided into two short separated periods (1941–1980 and 1995–2013), in order to compute temperature trends. In this context two statistical tests were used: linear regression and Mann-Kendall. The time series of mean annual temperature indicate the current warming period over Iraq identical with the global warming, which has started since the middle of seventh decade of the last century. The 2010 was the warmest year in all stations. Three distinct inter-annual temperature variation patterns were observed. These were probably the effects of micro-scale and meso-scale factors. The first one represents central and northern Iraq. The second represents the south of Iraq and Kirkuk station and the third one is a characteristic for eastern Iraq. Temperature trend analysis revealed that there are general upward trends with the strongest warming trends identified in the summer months which are around 89 % of the total significant monthly trends. Spatially, in both periods the southern region of Iraq is most affected by the warming trend in Tmean and Tmax. When considering Tmin, the southern and northern regions both are affected by warming with more pronounced trend intensity in the northern stations. No significant trend occurs Hai station in both periods and Baghdad has the still less trend value. In the first period the highest rise of Tmean and Tmax values are observed in July and June in Nasiriya station at 0.61 °C/decade and 0.63 °C/decade, respectively and in Mosul station for Tmin in August is 1.41 °C/decade. Moreover, in the period from 1995 to 2013, the highest warming trend of Tmean and Tmax were in Hai station for March at 1.48 °C/decade and at 1.85 °C/decade, respectively. Baghdad station experienced the highest significant trend for Tmin in August at 1.89 °C/decade.

Weather and climate are important natural resources for tourism and recreation, although sometimes they can make outdoor leisure activities less satisfying or even impossible. The aim of this work was to determine weather perception seasonal variability of people staying outdoors in urban environment for tourism and recreation, as well as to determine if personal factors influence estimation of recreationist actual biometeorological conditions and personal expectations towards weather elements. To investigate how human thermal sensations vary upon meteorological conditions typical for temperate climate, weather perception field researches were conducted in Warsaw (Poland) in all seasons. Urban recreationists’ preference for slightly warm thermal conditions, sunny, windless and cloudless weather, were identified as well as PET values considered to be optimal for sightseeing were defined between 27.3 and 31.7 °C. The results confirmed existence of phenomena called alliesthesia, which manifested in divergent thermal perception of comparable biometeorological conditions in transitional seasons. The results suggest that recreationist thermal sensations differed from other interviewees’ responses and were affected not only by physiological processes but they were also conditioned by psychological factors (i.e. attitude, expectations). Significant impact of respondents’ place of origin and its climate on creating thermal sensations and preferences was observed. Sex and age influence thermal preferences, whereas state of acclimatization is related with thermal sensations to some point. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s00484-016-1220-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.