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Urbanization is increasing worldwide, fragmenting, isolating or destroying native habitats with a subsequent loss of biodiversity, structural and compositional changes of biotic communities and weakening of the functioning of biological processes and ecosystem services. In urban ecosystems, terrestrial mammals provide important functions and services, but we do not have a synthesis of the impacts of urbanization on terrestrial mammals. Terrestrial mammals are vulnerable to habitat loss and modification caused by urbanization, thus we hypothesised that the abundance and diversity of mammals would decrease as urbanization progresses. In addition, due to the declining number of predators and thus to decreasing predation pressure in urban habitats, we assumed that herbivore and omnivore mammals would gain dominance. To clarify the inconsistency of previous urbanization studies on terrestrial mammals, we synthetized and re-evaluated published results by meta-analysis. Based on 50 rural-urban comparisons, terrestrial mammals were not significantly more abundant or diverse in rural than urban habitats. This was not only found at the community level, but also at the level of taxonomic groups (carnivores, marsupials, rodents), feeding habit (carnivorous, herbivorous or omnivorous species) or at the level of their interactions. Our results suggest that the studied urban-dwelling mammal species are probably well adapted to environmental conditions and pressures accompanied by urbanization via individual-level adaptation.

Over the past 30 yr, multiple species of predatory Coccinellidae, prominently Coccinella septempunctata L. and Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) have spread to new continents, influencing biodiversity and biological control. Here we review the mechanisms underlying these ecological interactions, focusing on multi-year field studies of native and non-native coccinellids and those using molecular and quantitative ecological methods. Field data from Asia show that H. axyridis, C. septempunctata, and Propylea japonica (Thunberg) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) are regularly among the most abundant predatory species but their rank varies by habitat. Studies of these species in their native Asian range, primarily related to their range in mainland China, document different patterns of seasonal abundance, species specific associations with prey, and habitat separation. Intraguild predation is well documented both in Asia and in newly invaded areas, and H. axyridis benefits most from this interaction. Harmonia axyridis also seems to rely more on cannibalism in times of prey scarcity than other species, and relatively sparse data indicate a lower predation pressure on it from natural enemies of coccinellids. Declines in the abundance of native coccinellids following the spread and increase of non-native species, documented in several multi-year studies on several continents, is a major concern for native biodiversity and the persistence of native coccinellid species. We suggest that future studies focus more attention on the community ecology of these invasive species in their native habitats. China Scholarship CouncilChina Scholarship Council; National Key R&D Program of China [2017YFE0104900]; National Institute of Food and Agriculture, United States Department of Agriculture, Hatch Program [1008480] Published version We thank the China Scholarship Council for a scholarship supporting H. Li's research in the Department of Entomology at the University of Kentucky. This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2017YFE0104900, to B. Li). J.J.O. was supported by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, United States Department of Agriculture, Hatch Program under accession number 1008480.

The pollen beetle Brassicogethes aeneus is a serious pest of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) in Europe. Management of this pest has grown difficult due to B. aeneus’s development of resistance to pyrethroid insecticides, as well as the pressure to establish control strategies that minimise the impact on nontarget organisms. RNA interference represents a nucleotide sequence-based, and thus potentially species-specific, approach to agricultural pest control. The present study examined the efficacy of targeting the coatomer gene coatomer subunit alpha (αCOP), via both microinjection and dietary exposure to exogenous complementary dsRNA, on αCOP-silencing and subsequent mortality in B. aeneus. Beetles injected with dsRNA targeting αCOP (at 0.14 µg/mg) showed 88% and 100% mortality at 6 and 10 days post-injection, respectively; where by the same time after dietary exposure, 43%–89% mortality was observed in the 3 µg dsRNA/µL treatment, though the effect was concentration-dependent. Thus, the effect was significant for both delivery routes. In working towards RNA-based management of B. aeneus, future studies should include αCOP as a target of interest.

The world-wide, rapid urbanization is leading to substantial changes in environmental and habitat conditions. These changes, as well as disturbances accompanying urbanization have considerable effects at various levels of the biological organization on wildlife. Understanding behavioral responses to such changes is essential for identifying which organisms may successfully adapt to the altered conditions. In this study, individuals of a forest specialist ground beetle, Carabus convexus, from rural and urban forest patches were tested for their exploratory and risk-taking behavior. Beetles responded consistently in the different contexts, furthermore, by behaving consistently over time, demonstrated that they had personalities. Agglomerative cluster analysis identified two groups of behavioral traits: the exploratory and the risk-taking dimension of personality. Urban females were significantly more exploratory than urban males which can be an adaptation to find high quality food needed to mature eggs in urban habitats, as well as to select favorable microsites for oviposition. Moreover, urban females and males showed more risk-taking behavior than rural females. Urban beetles with more risk-taking behavior may be better able to cope with frequent urbanization-driven disturbance events.

Simple Summary Urbanization is an important driver of global change, with negative consequences for biodiversity. Specialist species living in isolated urban forest fragments may be the most impacted by urbanization-driven environmental modifications. We compared various life history parameters of a forest specialist ground beetle in its original forest habitat and in urban forest fragments. Abundance was more than five times higher in the rural forest stands than in the urban forest fragments. We found no significant differences in body size or condition between the rural and urban individuals of either sex. Despite higher temperatures in urban habitats, the beginning of the reproductive period did not start earlier in the urban than the rural habitat. The number of ripe eggs was significantly higher in urban than rural females. The urban environmental conditions, however, seemed to cause high mortality of the immature stages, preventing the growth of urban populations. Abstract Urbanization is increasing worldwide and causes substantial changes in environmental parameters, generating various kinds of stress on arthropods, with several harmful consequences. We examined a forest specialist ground beetle, Carabus convexus, in forested habitats to evaluate the changes in four important life history traits between rural and urban populations. Analyzing beetles from the overwintered cohort in their first breeding season, we found no significant differences in body length or body mass between the rural and urban individuals. Body condition, judged by fat reserve scores, was similarly poor in both habitats, indicating that beetles were not able to accumulate substantial fat reserves at either habitat. Females with ripe eggs in their ovaries were first captured at the same time in both areas. The number of ripe eggs, however, was significantly higher in females of the low-density urban population (6.13 eggs/female) than in those of the high-density rural population (4.14 eggs/female), indicating density-dependent fecundity. Altered environmental and habitat conditions by urbanization, however, seemed to cause high mortality during egg hatching and/or larval development, preventing the growth of the urban population to the level of rural one.

AIM: The strength of species interactions is traditionally expected to increase toward the Equator. However, recent studies have reported opposite or inconsistent latitudinal trends in the bottom-up (plant quality) and top-down (natural enemies) forces driving herbivory. In addition, these forces have rarely been studied together thus limiting previous attempts to understand the effect of large-scale climatic gradients on herbivory. LOCATION: Europe. TIME PERIOD: 2018–2019. MAJOR TAXA STUDIED: Quercus robur. METHODS: We simultaneously tested for latitudinal variation in plant–herbivore–natural enemy interactions. We further investigated the underlying climatic factors associated with variation in herbivory, leaf chemistry and attack rates in Quercus robur across its complete latitudinal range in Europe. We quantified insect leaf damage and the incidence of specialist herbivores as well as leaf chemistry and bird attack rates on dummy caterpillars on 261 oak trees. RESULTS: Climatic factors rather than latitude per se were the best predictors of the large-scale (geographical) variation in the incidence of gall-inducers and leaf-miners as well as in leaf nutritional content. However, leaf damage, plant chemical defences (leaf phenolics) and bird attack rates were not influenced by climatic factors or latitude. The incidence of leaf-miners increased with increasing concentrations of hydrolysable tannins, whereas the incidence of gall-inducers increased with increasing leaf soluble sugar concentration and decreased with increasing leaf C : N ratios and lignins. However, leaf traits and bird attack rates did not vary with leaf damage. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: These findings help to refine our understanding of the bottom-up and top-down mechanisms driving geographical variation in plant–herbivore interactions, and indicate the need for further examination of the drivers of herbivory on trees. This study was carried out with financial support from the French National Research Agency (ANR) in the frame of the Investments for the Future Programme, within the Cluster of Excellence COTE (Continental To coastal Ecosystems: evolution, adaptability and governance) (ANR-10-LABX-45). E.V.C. was funded by the BiodivERsA (BiodivERsA is a network of national and regional funding organisations promoting pan-European research on biodiversity and ecosystem services, and offering innovative opportunities for the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity) project SPONFOREST (Unraveling the potential of spontaneous forest establishment for improving ecosystem functions and services in dynamic landscapes) (BiodivERsA3-2015-58). info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Environmental risk assessments (ERAs) are required before utilizing exotic arthropods for biological control (BC). Present ERAs focus on exposure analysis (host/prey range) and have resulted in approval of many specialist exotic biological control agents (BCA). In comparison to specialists, generalist arthropod BCAs (GABCAs) have been considered inherently risky and less used in classical biological control. To safely consider exotic GABCAs, an ERA must include methods for the analysis of potential effects. A panel of 47 experts from 14 countries discussed, in six online forums over 12 months, scientific criteria for an ERA for exotic GABCAs. Using four case studies, a three-tiered ERA comprising Scoping, Screening and Definitive Assessments was developed. The ERA is primarily based on expert consultation, with decision processes in each tier that lead to the approval of the petition or the subsequent tier. In the Scoping Assessment, likelihood of establishment (for augmentative BC), and potential effect(s) are qualitatively assessed. If risks are identified, the Screening Assessment is conducted, in which 19 categories of effects (adverse and beneficial) are quantified. If a risk exceeds the proposed risk threshold in any of these categories, the analysis moves to the Definitive Assessment to identify potential non-target species in the respective category(ies). When at least one potential non-target species is at significant risk, long-term and indirect ecosystem risks must be quantified with actual data or the petition for release can be dismissed or withdrawn. The proposed ERA should contribute to the development of safe pathways for the use of low risk GABCAs.

Deserts, despite being extreme environments, contain multiple habitats of different productivity and vegetation structure, affecting the abundance and diversity of desert arthropods. Predatory arthropods may be exceptionally diverse where scattered vegetation provides micro-habitats, concentrations of prey, and protection from predation risk. We examined the effect of habitat differences and local vegetation structure on abundance, diversity and assemblage composition of ground-active spiders in the Negev desert, Israel. Our monthly pitfall trapping in four main habitat types – dunes, loess plain, rocky slopes and wadis (dry watercourses), collected 5937 adults of 136 species. The abundance of ground-active spiders was highest in the dunes due to two dominant species, Haplodrassus pugnans and Zodarion nitidum. Both habitat and season significantly affected species richness, which peaked in the warm season; wadis had consistently higher species richness (63–74 spp.) than other habitats (48–61 spp.). Vegetation height positively correlated with both species richness and abundance in all habitats. Spider assemblages in the same, but geographically distant, habitats were more similar than those in adjacent but different habitats. Several numerically dominant species were habitat specialists. Our results confirm the need for large- and local-scale habitat management to maintain spider diversity in the face of increasing anthropogenic threats. US-Israel Binational Science Foundation (1989/060); Jacob Blaustein Center for Scientific Cooperation; Jacob Blaustein Center for Scientific Co-operation. info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Habitat conversion in mountain areas threatens their biodiversity. The effect on biodiversity of creating a mountain landscape with a network of forest fragments and a cultivated habitat matrix is poorly documented in China. Bird communities in forest fragments and tea plantations were censused by field observations in two years (2018&ndash, 2019) in three tea-growing locations, Anxi, Beifeng, and Wuyishan in Fujian Province, south-eastern China. Out of a potential pool of 247 forest-associated bird species, we detected the presence of 82, mostly resident species, 32&ndash, 47 of those regularly visiting tea plantations. Species-accumulation curves indicated the near-completeness of the census. The R&eacute, nyi diversity profiles indicated a more diverse community in forest fragments than nearby tea plantations at Anxi and Beifeng, but the tea plantations at Wuyishan supported a more diverse bird community than the forest. Avian communities in tea plantations were a significantly nested subset of the forest communities. Tea plantations can provide resources for forest-associated birds, but the effectiveness of preserving avian diversity depends on natural forest fragments and can be enhanced by landscape-scale management, when the biocontrol potential of birds can also be enhanced.

Scientific knowledge in the field of ecology is increasingly enriched by data acquired by the general public participating in citizen science (CS) programs. Yet, doubts remain about the reliability of such data, in particular when acquired by school children. We built upon an ongoing CS program - Oak bodyguards - to assess the ability of European schoolchildren to accurately estimate the strength of biotic interactions in terrestrial ecosystems. We used standardized protocols to estimate predation rates on artificial caterpillars and insect herbivory on oak leaves and compared estimates made by school children, trained and untrained professional scientists (with no or limited expertise in predation or herbivory assessment). Compared to trained scientists, both schoolchildren and untrained professional scientists overestimated predation rates, but assessments made by the latter were more consistent. School children overestimated insect herbivory, as did untrained professional scientists. Thus, raw data acquired by school children participating in CS programs cannot be used and require several quality checks. However, such data are of no less value than data collected by untrained professional scientists and can be calibrated for bias.

Forest edges are formed by natural or anthropogenic processes and their maintaining processes cause fundamentally different edge responses. We evaluated the published evidence on the effect of various edges on the abundance of ground beetles of different habitat affinity and dispersal power. Our results, based on 23 publications and 86 species, showed that natural forest edges were impenetrable for open-habitat species with high dispersal power, preventing their influx into the forest interiors, while forest specialist species of limited dispersal power penetrated and reached abundances comparable to those in forest interiors. Anthropogenic edges, maintained by continued disturbance were permeable by macropterous open-habitat species, allowing them to invade the forest interiors, while such edges (except the forestry-induced ones) deterred brachypterous forest specialists. Different permeability of forest edges with various maintaining processes can affect ecosystem functions and services, therefore the preservation and restoration of natural forest edges are key issues in both forest ecology and nature conservation.

With the intensification of aquaculture technologies, the amount of feed input and waste material is increasing, creating potentially negative impacts on freshwater habitats receiving effluent from such systems. Changes in biodiversity of zooplankton communities is often used to assess the effects of such impacts. Rotifers are suitable for bioindication of water quality due to their fast reaction to environmental changes. We examined seasonal changes in the diversity of rotifer communities along a 3.5 km section of the biggest oxbow lake in the Tisza River basin, Hungary, that received inflow from an intensive tank-based aquaculture farm. We detected a species-rich rotifer community with 26 species. Using the R&eacute, nyi one-parameter diversity index families, we found that biodiversity increased away from the point of inflow in spring, but after a summer transition period the situation became partially reversed during autumn. At the beginning of the study period, the nutrient-rich effluent strengthened the dominance of common species, which decreased but did not disappear in summer. In autumn, the extra nutrient input delayed the decline of the rotifer community at the point of effluent.

Tea (Camellia sinensis) is an important food product with thousands of years of human use. Being a non-washable food, no pesticide residues are allowed, which increases the importance of natural means of plant protection. Predation, a component of natural pest control, is an important contributor to this, but its level and sustainability are not known in most of the areas of tea production. We quantified predation intensity using the artificial sentinel prey method in a tea-growing landscape containing remnants of the original forest vegetation in Fujian Province, China. The most common predators were chewing arthropods (49.8% of predation events) and birds (48.1%). Overall, predation rates at the edges of forest fragments (18.9% d-1) were lower than either in fragment interiors (25.4%d&minus, 1) or in the surrounding tea plantations (19.2&ndash, 24.1%d-1). Arthropod predation was higher inside, and at the edge of, forest fragments than within plantations, and generally decreased with increasing distance from a fragment edge, indicating limited spillover of arthropod predators from the native habitat remnants to the cultivated matrix at the local scale. Bird predation, though, showed a different trend: it was lower on the inside of forest fragments than in the tea planation, and bird attack rates increased at increasing distances (up to 40 m) from the forest fragment edge. We also found a reciprocal relationship between attack rates by birds and arthropods, suggesting intra-guild predation. Measures protecting arthropod natural enemies could increase the combined pest suppression effect, contributing to pesticide-free tea production in China.

Urbanization is one of the most important global trends which causes habitat reduction and alteration which are, in turn, the main reasons for the well-documented reduction in structural and functional diversity in urbanized environments. In contrast, effects on ecological mechanisms are less known. Predation is one of the most important ecological functions because of its community-structuring effects. We studied six forest habitats along a riverside urbanization gradient in Szeged, a major city in southern Hungary, crossed by the river Tisza, to describe how extreme events (e.g., floods) as primary selective pressure act on adaptation in riparian habitats. We found a generally decreasing predation pressure from rural to urban habitats as predicted by the increasing disturbance hypothesis (higher predator abundances in rural than in urban habitats). The only predators that reacted differently to urbanization were ground active arthropods, where results conformed to the prediction of the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (higher abundance in moderately disturbed suburban habitats). We did not find any evidence that communities exposed to extreme flood events were preadapted to the effects of urbanization. The probable reason is that changes accompanied by urbanization are much faster than natural landscape change, so the communities cannot adapt to them.

The whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) cryptic species Mediterranean (MED), is a destructive insect pest worldwide. In order to contribute to controlling B. tabaci by non-chemical methods, we examined the possibility of using a combination of trap/barrier crops and a parasitoid natural enemy in cotton. We performed field experiments using cantaloupe (Cucumis melo) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) as trap crops and maize (Zea mays) as a barrier crop combined with periodic releases of the parasitoid Eretmocerus hayati in Hebei Province, Northern China. All treatments significantly reduced immature whitefly densities. Parasitism rate was significantly higher in cotton plots intercropped with sunflower and with perimeter-planted cantaloupe. Adult whitefly density was negatively related to parasitoid abundance and was significantly lower in cotton plots intercropped with maize than in the control plots. Intercropping was more effective than perimeter-planting at reducing B. tabaci densities and increasing yield. Parasitoid dispersal was not hampered by barrier crops, indicating that the two methods of control are compatible. These results contribute to the development of integrated pest management methods against this important pest. National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (31760541) (31672087); National Key R&D Project of China (2016YFC1201200, 2017YFC1200600); International Science and Technology Cooperation of China (2015DFG32300) info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Urbanization effects on terrestrial isopod (Isopoda, Oniscidea) populations were studied in forested areas along a rural-to-urban gradient including a native beech forest, suburban and urban forest fragments in Soro, Denmark. The seasonal activity patterns of the dominating species (Oniscus asellus, Philoscia muscorum and Porcellio scaber) indicated differences among the areas, but these patterns were idiosyncratic. There were more females than males in most areas. The seasonal patterns of males and non-gravid females were similar and often bimodal; gravid females showed markedly different, usually unimodal activity patterns. Temporal changes of sex ratios were — in each species — characterized by an early summer activity peak of males, followed by the activity peak of gravid females. We suggest that these trends might indicate a reproduction-driven surface activity of males. The small response of the three isopod species to urbanization may reflect their wide ecological tolerance as well as the “soft management” of the urban park.

We suggest the use of a graphical method, involving a standardisation of the seasonal activity curves and their subsequent comparison by a percentile-percentile graph as an easy way to compare seasonal activities in arthropods. To test the suitability of the suggested method, the seasonal dynamics of three common carabid beetles, Pterostichus melanarius, Nebria brevicollis and Carabus nemoralis were compared in three habitats (rural forest, suburban and urban forest fragments) along an urbanisation gradient near Soro, Denmark, in 2004 and 2005. Activity in urban habitats often started earlier, possibly caused by the warmer microclimate in the city centre. The comparative graphs indicated the unsuitability of the suburban habitat for N. brevicollis, and the differential suitability as overwintering habitat of the three urbanisation stages for C. nemoralis. The method seems suitable to analyse differences in seasonal activity while being more sensitive than traditional seasonal-activity graphs.

We studied the impact that two agro-ecological service crops or ASC, (vetch and barley), and two different ASC termination techniques (using a roller crimper or green manure) had on predation pressure in an organic vegetable system. We compared these two ASC termination techniques with a biodegradable plastic mulch, commonly used to control weeds in vegetable organic systems, over two consecutive growing seasons (2014–2015). Predation pressure was evaluated by means of artificial caterpillars made of green plasticine. Attack marks left on them were assigned to predators including chewing insects, birds and mammals. The frequencies of attack were significantly correlated with the activity density of carabids. In both experiments, carabid activity density was higher in ASC terminations than in the biodegradable plastic mulch control. Predation rate was significantly higher in the field with vetch flattened by roller crimper, while no significant difference was detected between termination techniques or in comparison with the control when barley was used as an ASC. The rate of ASC decomposition was higher in vetch than in barley and this could be the reason for the higher activity density of springtails in vetch. Carabid activity density was also positively correlated with springtail abundance. In conclusion, our field experiments showed that artificial caterpillars could represent a good standardized method to assess predation pressure in different habitats.

Humankind draws important benefits from large-scale ecological processes termed ecosystem services, yet the status of several of them is declining. Reliable monitoring methods are essential for tracking the status of ecosystem services. Predation is the mainstay of natural pest control, a key ecosystem service. We used green plasticine caterpillars to monitor predation pressure, and to obtain baseline data on predator activity in transgenic Bt versus non-Bt maize fields in Old and New World countries. Predation pressure was measured at ground and canopy levels using an identical, small-plot experimental design in four European countries (Denmark, Slovakia, Romania and Italy) and Argentina. Total predation rate in maize was 11.7%d −1 (min. 7.2%d −1 in Argentina, max. 29.0%d −1 in Romania). Artificial caterpillars were attacked both by invertebrates (mostly chewing insects with 42.0% of the attack marks, and ants with 7.1%, but also predatory and parasitoid wasps, spiders and slugs), and vertebrates (small mammals 25.5%, and birds 20.2%). Total predation at ground level (15.7%d −1 ) was significantly higher than in maize canopies (6.0%d −1 ) in all countries, except Argentina. We found no significant differences between predator pressure in Bt versus non-Bt maize plots. The artificial caterpillar method provided comparable, quantitative data on predation intensity, and proved to be suitable for monitoring natural pest control. This method usefully expands the existing toolkit by directly measuring ecological function rather than structure.

Physiological condition of an animal is flexible and can quickly change in relation to the quality of its environment. This makes it potentially suitable as an estimator of environmental stress. We studied the condition in three predatory ground beetles, Carabus nemoralis, Nebria brevicollis and Pterostichus melanarius along an urbanisation gradient (forest-suburban area - forest fragments in urban park) in Soro, Denmark to test whether urbanisation-related stress is reflected in body condition. We also considered the interaction between condition and the true asymmetry using a local polynomial regression model. Females showed consistently better condition than males in all studied species. The condition indices in C. nemoralis and N. brevicollis were higher in the urban habitats than the other sites, while P. melanarius showed better condition in the suburban forest fragments than the forest or urban habitats. A significant negative correlation was found between condition and asymmetry for C. nemoralis and N. brevicollis in the suburban as well as urban forest fragments. This indicates a complex interaction between tolerance limits, feeding conditions and stress levels during advancing urbanisation, emphasising the importance of using multiple criteria for assessing its impact on biodiversity.

In a fragmented landscape, transitional zones between neighbouring habitats are common, and our understanding of community organisational forces across such habitats is important. Edge studies are numerous, but the majority of them utilise information on species richness and abundance. Abundance and taxonomic diversity, however, provide little information on the functioning and phylogeny of the co-existing species. Combining the evaluation of their functional and phylogenetic relationships, we aimed to assess whether ground beetle assemblages are deterministically or stochastically structured along grassland-forest gradients. Our results showed different community assembly rules on opposite sides of the forest edge. In the grassland, co-occurring species were functionally and phylogenetically not different from the random null model, indicating a random assembly process. Contrary to this, at the forest edge and the interior, co-occurring species showed functional and phylogenetic clustering, thus environmental filtering was the likely process structuring carabid assemblages. Community assembly in the grassland was considerably affected by asymmetrical species flows (spillover) across the forest edge: more forest species penetrated into the grassland than open-habitat and generalist species entered into the forest. This asymmetrical species flow underlines the importance of the filter function of forest edges. As unfavourable, human-induced changes to the structure, composition and characteristics of forest edges may alter their filter function, edges have to be specifically considered during conservation management. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved

South America is undergoing a rapid and large scale conversion of natural habitats to cultivated land. Ecosystem services (ESs) still remain important but their level and sustainability are not known. We quantified predation intensity in an Argentinian agricultural landscape containing remnants of the original chaco serrano forest by using artificial sentinel prey. We sought to identify the main predators, and the effect of landscape configuration and maize phenology on predation pressure by invertebrate and vertebrate predators in this landscape. The most common predators were chewing insects (50.4% predation events), birds (22.7%), and ants (17.5%). Overall predation rates in forest fragments (41.6% d-1) were significantly higher than in the surrounding maize fields (21.5% d-1). Invertebrate predation was higher inside and at the edge of forest fragments than within fields, and did not change with increasing distance from a fragment edge, indicating a lack of spillover from the native habitat remnants to the cultivated matrix at the local scale. Distance from a continuous forest had a positive impact on predation by invertebrates and a negative impact on vertebrate predation. Fil: Ferrante, Marco. Aarhus University. Flakkebjerg Research Centre. Department of Agroecology; Dinamarca Fil: González, Ezequiel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal; Argentina Fil: Gabor L., Lovei. Aarhus University. Flakkebjerg Research Centre. Department of Agroecology; Dinamarca

European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007–2013); Conservation biological control (CBC) is a sustainable approach to pest management that can contribute to a reduction in pesticide use as part of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategy. CBC is based on the premise that countering habitat loss and environmental disturbance associated with intensive crop production will conserve natural enemies, thus contributing to pest suppression. The abundance and diversity of natural enemies increases in response to a variety of conservation measures, including plant and habitat diversification, a reduction in cropping intensity, and increased landscape complexity. However, the response of natural enemy populations to conservation measures is not consistent; often it fails to translate into pest suppression or improved crop yield, and is seldom utilised in commercial crop production settings. CBC is a complex strategy drawing on a number of ecological and behavioural processes, operating at multiple scales, and mediated by management actions that are, potentially, targeted at a wide range of pest organisms. Given this inherent complexity, it is not surprising that the scientific understanding of CBC is incomplete, or that the design and adoption of reliable CBC prescriptions have proved elusive. To tackle this, we consolidate existing knowledge of CBC using a simple conceptual model that organises the functional elements of CBC into a common, unifying framework. We identify and integrate the key biological processes affecting natural enemies and their biological control function across local and regional scales, and consider the interactions, interdependencies and constraints that determine the outcome of CBC strategies. Conservation measures are often effective in supporting natural enemy populations but their success cannot be guaranteed; the greatest limitation to the development of effective CBC is due to a failure to adequately direct biological control services to achieve suppression of the target pests. By considering the performance of these and other components of CBC within the context of an integrated system, we believe that the limiting factors can be identified, and removed, allowing effective CBC strategies to be implemented.

Sentinel prey can provide a direct, quantitative measure of predation under field conditions. Live sentinel prey provides more realistic data but rarely allows the partitioning of the total predation pressure; artificial prey is less natural but traces left by different predators are identifiable, making it suitable for comparative studies. We reviewed the available evidence of the use of both types of invertebrate sentinel prey. Fifty-seven papers used real prey, usually measuring predation on a focal (often pest) species, with studies overwhelmingly from North America. The median predation was 25.8% d-1 . Artificial sentinel prey (45 papers) were used in both temperate and tropical areas, placed more above ground than at ground level. The most commonly used artificial prey imitated a caterpillar. Up to 14 predator groups were identified, registering a median of 8.8% d-1 predation; half the studies reported only bird predation. Predation on real prey was higher than on artificial ones, but invertebrate predation was not higher than vertebrate predation. Invertertebrate but not vertebrate predation was negatively related to prey size. Predation near the Equator was not higher than at higher latitudes, nor in cultivated than noncultivated habitats. The use of sentinel prey is not yet standardised in terms of prey size, arrangement, exposure period or data reporting. Due to the simplicity and ease of use of the method, such standardisation may increase the usefulness of comparative studies, contributing to the understanding of the importance and level of predation in various habitats worldwide.

We studied the effects on spiders of a three-step rural-urban urbanisation gradient near a Danish town embedded in a historically forested landscape. Using pitfall traps set in forested habitat patches, we collected a total of 3075 adult spiders of 80 species; the habitats under different degrees of urbanisation had 45–47 species. We found support for Gray’s Increasing Disturbance Hypothesis: the species richness trap −1 was significantly higher in the rural habitat than in any other one, and decreased from the rural forest to forest fragments dominated by non-native trees in the urban park. The number of forest specialist species also decreased along the urbanisation gradient. Neither the presence of generalists nor light-preferring species increased under more urbanised conditions, but web builders and hygrophilous species were more species-rich in the rural habitat than elsewhere. Using indicator values, we identified Coelotes atropos, Walckenaeria corniculans, Walckenaeria cucullata, and Pachygnatha listeri as species linked to the rural and suburban habitats; Trochosa terricola, Saaristoa abnormis, Robertus lividus as characteristic of the rural habitat; and Gongylidium rufipes and Diplocephalus latifrons as urban habitat specialists.

BACKGROUND The whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) MED, is a destructive insect pest in many countries of the world. Although the use of insecticides for controlling B. tabaci has been effective to a certain extent, pesticides are not an acceptable long-term control method, and alternatives should be sought. This paper focuses on the possibility of controlling B. tabaci on cotton using trap and barrier crops. We performed field experiments using cantaloupe (Cucumis melo) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) as trap crops, and maize (Zea mays) as a barrier crop in various configurations in Hebei Province, North China. RESULTS The main activity periods were shortest on cantaloupe and ranged between 16-32 days for immatures and 14-33 days for adults. Adult whitefly densities were not significantly reduced by any treatment. During the main activity period, maize intercropping reduced densities of immature whiteflies from 24.2 individuals (ind.) 100 cm-2 to 4.0 ind.100 cm-2 , but all treatments were successful in significantly reducing immature B. tabaci densities. This resulted in a significant yield premium. CONCLUSIONS Intercropping reduced B. tabaci densities on cotton more than perimeter planting. Maize was more effective to reduce densities of immature whiteflies on cotton than cantaloupe. The results will contribute to the development of more effective and practical approaches for protecting cotton from B. tabaci and lowering chemical pressure on this crop. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Scientific knowledge in the field of ecology is increasingly enriched by data acquired by the general public participating in citizen science (CS) programs. Yet, doubts remain about the reliability of such data, in particular when acquired by schoolchildren. We built upon an ongoing CS program, Oak Bodyguards, to assess the ability of schoolchildren to accurately estimate the strength of biotic interactions in terrestrial ecosystems. We used standardized protocols to estimate attack rates on artificial caterpillars and insect herbivory on oak leaves. We compared estimates made by schoolchildren with estimates made by professional scientists who had been trained in predation and herbivory assessments (henceforth, trained scientists), and trained scientists’ estimates with those made by professional scientists with or without expertise (untrained) in predation or herbivory assessment. Compared with trained scientists, both schoolchildren and untrained professional scientists overestimated attack rates, but assessments made by the latter were more consistent. Schoolchildren tended to overestimate insect herbivory, as did untrained professional scientists. Raw data acquired by schoolchildren participating in CS programs therefore require several quality checks by trained professional scientists before being used. However, such data are of no less value than data collected by untrained professional scientists. CS with schoolchildren can be a valuable tool for carrying out ecological research, provided that the data itself is acquired by professional scientists from material collected by citizens.

Urbanization is one of the most important global trends which causes habitat reduction and alteration which are, in turn, the main reasons for the reduced structural and functional diversity in urbanized environments. Predation is one of the most important ecological functions because of its community-structuring effects. According to previous studies effects of urbanization on predation rates appear inconsistent. Predator species are vulnerable to habitat alteration and loss caused by urbanization, therefore, we hypothesised that predation rate would decrease along the rural-urban gradient. To clarify the impact of urbanization on predation, we performed a meta-analysis on predation rates in rural vs. urban areas using published data of 25 studies. Predation rates on taxa other than birds were underrepresented, preventing an overall evaluation. Reported predation rates on birds were significantly higher in rural than in urban habitats.

Diversity changes can be evaluated at various spatial scales, and the relationship between changes in diversity at the local, landscape and regional scales is not evident. The overall patterns of functional and beta diversity of bird assemblages were evaluated along a five-stage urbanization gradient, censused over the months of January to April in the years 2010–2013, in and around Amravati city, Deccan Plateau, Central India. We expected the abundance of large and predatory species to decline along the gradient, and urbanization to homogenize species richness at the landscape level. Overall, 112,829 birds belonging to 89 species were identified in the region, and species richness decreased from the rural forest (73 species) to more urbanized areas (lowest at the centre of Amravaty city with 29 species). Along the urbanization gradient, bird assemblages contained more small species, and the share of frugivorous and omnivorous species also increased, while that of insectivorous species decreased. Diversity partitioning indicated that of the overall pattern, local (alpha) diversity accounted for 50.1% of the total (gamma) diversity, and urbanization stages another 36.2%; the contribution of within-stage, local diversity was rather small (2.7%), indicating fairly homogeneous assemblages.

Environmental stress can affect trait size and cause an increase in the fluctuating asymmetry (FA) of bilateral morphological traits in many animals. For insect parasitoids, feeding of hosts on transgenic maize, expressing a Bacillus thuringiensis toxin gene is a potential environmental stressor. We compared the size of antennae, forewings, and tibia, as well as their FA values, in two parasitoids developed on two East African host species feeding on non-transgenic vs. transgenic maize. The two lepidopteran stem-borer hosts were the native Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and a recent invader, Chilo partellus Swinhoe (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). The two braconid parasitoids were the native, gregarious larval endoparasitoid Cotesia sesamiae and the recently introduced Cotesia flavipes. Both parasitoids attacked both hosts, creating evolutionarily old vs. novel interactions. Transient feeding of hosts on transgenic maize had various effects on FA, depending on trait as well as the host and parasitoid species. These effects were usually stronger in evolutionarily novel host–parasitoid associations than in the older, native ones. These parameters have capacity to more sensitively indicate the effects of potential stressors and merit further consideration.

We censused terrestrial bird assemblages along a five-stage urbanisation gradient (rural forest, industrial zone, peri-urban, suburban and urban habitats) in and around Amravati City, Central India ...

Lepidoptera is one of the most diverse orders of insects, their larvae are very abundant in many habitats, and frequent prey of various predators. To decrease predation risk, caterpillars developed several means of defence, among them timing their activity to avoid predators (seeking enemy-free time). Although the enemy-free time hypothesis is often invoked to explain caterpillar behaviour, empirical evidence for it is scarce. We tested whether such enemy-free time exists in a temperate forest by comparing predation pressure on artificial caterpillars during day and night on the ground in forest fragments in Denmark. We found a high predation rate, 23.9% d(-1), and higher predation rate at night (30.9% d(-0.5)) than during the day (17.0% d(-0.5)), both by invertebrate (23.3% d(-0.5) vs. 12.4% d(-0.5)) and vertebrate (8.5% d(-0.5) vs. 3.3% d(-0.5)) predators. The most important predators were chewing insects (73.4% of all attacks) and small mammals (19.0%). Attack rates on red caterpillars were higher (30.0% d(-1)) than on green ones (19.5% d(-1)). Overall, these data do not support the idea that night activity can provide enemy-free time for solitary caterpillars on the temperate forest floor.

The sentinel prey method can quantify predation pressure in various habitats. Real prey is assumed to more realistically mimic the predator experience but the predator can rarely be identified. Artificial prey made of plasticine may lack real chemical cues, but provides information about predator identity. However, the relationship between predation pressure registered by artificial versus real prey is not clear. We tested the relative attractiveness of artificial caterpillars, and intact, wounded, or dead larvae of the cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicae) for the carabid predator Pterostichus melanarius Illiger (Coleoptera: Carabidae). P. melanarius adults were attracted to dead caterpillars more than to live or wounded ones. Coating artificial caterpillars with caterpillar haemolymph increased their attractiveness. However, predators were not attracted more to healthy, real caterpillars than to “untreated” artificial ones. We conclude that using artificial caterpillars does not underestimate predation pressure by this carabid on healthy caterpillars.

The effectiveness of natural enemies to control pests can be enhanced through habitat manipulation. However, due to the differences in their ecology, generalist and specialist species may respond differently to the same manipulation. Moreover, interactions among natural enemies (i.e. cannibalism, intraguild predation, hyperparasitism) may complicate the assumption that a higher density of natural enemies would increase the level of biological control. We investigated the natural enemy guild composition and the predation rate along flower vs. grass margins at the edge of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) fields in Denmark. Natural enemies were sampled by pitfall trapping and by suction sampling; predation intensity was measured using two different sentinel prey methods: artificial caterpillars made of plasticine, and sentinel aphid colonies. Specialist and generalist species responded differently to the two margin types: specialists (mostly parasitic wasps) were attracted by the flower margins, while generalists (ground beetles, rove beetles and spiders) were more active in grass margins. The number of artificial caterpillars attacked was significantly greater in grass margins (mean = 48.9%, SD = 24.3) than in flower margins (mean = 30.7%, SD = 17.4). We found a significant positive relationship between the number of artificial caterpillars attacked by chewing insects, and activity density for large (≥15 mm) ground beetles. Predation of sentinel aphids in wheat fields did not vary significantly in relation to margin type. Our results suggest that flowering margins may be beneficial for canopy-active specialist natural enemies, but grassy margins are more useful for ground-active generalist predators.

Non-cultivated areas in agricultural landscapes can substantially contribute to biodiversity. Therefore, to examine the role of tree-line hedges in supporting arthropod diversity in an agricultural landscape, we sampled carabid beetles in three replicates of a native deciduous (hawthorn, Crataegus mono-gyna), a non-native deciduous (rowan, Sorbus intermedia), and a non-native coniferous (spruce, Picea spp.) hedge in Jytland, Denmark. We hypothesised that hedgerows with deciduous trees harbour more diverse carabid assemblages than hedges composed of non-native trees. The number of carabid individuals and species was highest in the hawthorn hedges and significantly lower in rowan and spruce. This was caused by the presence of forest specialist species. Differences in the number of the grassland and the cropland specialist ground beetle individuals and species were not statistically significant among the hedges. Litter depth and the density of herbs and grasses negatively, while hedge width positively influenced carabid diversity. Overall, hedges composed of the native, deciduous hawthorn were superior to ones composed of the non-native rowan, and especially to coniferous ones to conserve and maintain carabid diversity in this cultivated Danish landscape.

Most edges are anthropogenic in origin, but are distinguishable by their maintaining processes (natural vs. continued anthropogenic interventions: forestry, agriculture, urbanization). We hypothesized that the dissimilar edge histories will be reflected in the diversity and assemblage composition of inhabitants. Testing this “history‐based edge effect” hypothesis, we evaluated published information on a common insect group, ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) in forest edges. A meta‐analysis showed that the diversity‐enhancing properties of edges significantly differed according to their history. Forest edges maintained by natural processes had significantly higher species richness than their interiors, while edges with continued anthropogenic influence did not. The filter function of edges was also essentially different depending on their history. For forest specialist species, edges maintained by natural processes were penetrable, allowing these species to move right through the edges, while edges still under anthropogenic interventions were impenetrable, preventing the dispersal of forest specialists out of the forest. For species inhabiting the surrounding matrix (open‐habitat and generalist species), edges created by forestry activities were penetrable, and such species also invaded the forest interior. However, natural forest edges constituted a barrier and prevented the invasion of matrix species into the forest interior. Preserving and protecting all edges maintained by natural processes, and preventing anthropogenic changes to their structure, composition, and characteristics are key factors to sustain biodiversity in forests. Moreover, the increasing presence of anthropogenic edges in a landscape is to be avoided, as they contribute to the loss of biodiversity. Simultaneously, edges under continued anthropogenic disturbance should be restored by increasing habitat heterogeneity.

The continued decline in farmland biodiversity in Europe despite substantial funding for agri-environment schemes (AES) has prompted calls for more effective biodiversity conservation measures. The current AES regime allows for both holistic measures, such as organic farming, that broadly target the agricultural environment and biodiversity-specific measures, such as flowering fields, but little is known of their relative efficacies. To address this gap, we studied carabids in 48 arable fields that presented four crop types under different management practices along a gradient of landscape complexity: (a) conventionally managed crop (winter wheat), (b) biodiversity-specific AES under conventional management (sown flowering field), (c) organically managed mono-crop (winter spelt) and (d) organically managed lentil-mixedcrop (lentil intercropped with cereal or camelina). For these crop-use types, we compared functional diversity of carabid assemblages at the edge and center of the fields. Using pitfall traps, we collected more than 55,000 carabids of 95 species over two years. We characterized diversity using community weighted means and functional divergence of three ecological traits – body size, feeding type, and flight ability. Conventional flowering fields and organic winter spelt, but not organic spring sown lentil-mixed-crop, increased the proportion of plant-feeding carabids; moreover, trait characteristics and their divergences were most affected by field edges, with smaller, less carnivorous and more flight-enabled carabid assemblages found there than in the center. Divergence of body size and feeding type but not of flight ability was larger at the field edges than centres. Surrounding landscape complexity did not affect carabid traits. We conclude that future AES policy should avoid strict decisions between biodiversity specific- and holistic measures. Instead, priority should be given to a diversity of different measures, targeting the enhancement of edge habitats as well as productive and non-productive measures.

In China, two invasive pests, Bemisia tabaci MEAM1 (Gennadius) and Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), often co-occur with the native pest, Aphis gossypii (Glover), on plants of Malvaceae and Cucurbitaceae. All three are preyed on by the native ladybird, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas); however, the native predator might be expected to prefer native prey to the exotic ones due to a shared evolutionary past. In order to clarify whether the presence of native prey affected the consumption of these two invasive species by the native predator, field-cage experiments were conducted. A duplex qPCR was used to simultaneously detect both non-native pests within the gut of the predator. H. axyridis readily accepted both invasive prey species, but preferred B. tabaci. With all three prey species available, H. axyridis consumption of B. tabaci was 39.3 +/- 2.2% greater than consumption of F. occidentalis. The presence of A. gossypii reduced (by 59.9% on B. tabaci, and by 60.6% on F. occidentalis), but did not stop predation on the two exotic prey when all three were present. The consumption of B. tabaci was similar whether it was alone or together with A. gossypii. However, the presence of aphids reduced predation on the invasive thrips. Thus, some invasive prey may be incorporated into the prey range of a native generalist predator even in the presence of preferred native prey.

‘Carabidologists do it all’ (Niemelä 1996a) is a phrase with which most European carabidologists are familiar. Indeed, during the last half a century, professional and amateur entomologists have contributed enormously to our understanding of the basic biology of carabid beetles. The success of the field is in no small part due to regular European Carabidologists’ Meetings, which started in 1969 in Wijster, the Netherlands, with the 14th meeting again held in the Netherlands in 2009, celebrating the 40th anniversary of the first meeting and 50 years of long-term research in the Dwingelderveld. This paper offers a subjective summary of some of the major developments in carabidology since the 1960s. Taxonomy of the family Carabidae is now reasonably established, and the application of modern taxonomic tools has brought up several surprises like elsewhere in the animal kingdom. Progress has been made on the ultimate and proximate factors of seasonality and timing of reproduction, which only exceptionally show non-seasonality. Triggers can be linked to evolutionary events and plausibly explained by the “taxon cycle” theory. Fairly little is still known about certain feeding preferences, including granivory and ants, as well as unique life history strategies, such as ectoparasitism and predation on higher taxa. The study of carabids has been instrumental in developing metapopulation theory (even if it was termed differently). Dispersal is one of the areas intensively studied, and results show an intricate interaction between walking and flying as the major mechanisms. The ecological study of carabids is still hampered by some unresolved questions about sampling and data evaluation. It is recognised that knowledge is uneven, especially concerning larvae and species in tropical areas. By their abundance and wide distribution, carabid beetles can be useful in population studies, bioindication, conservation biology and landscape ecology. Indeed, 40 years of carabidological research have provided so much data and insights, that among insects - and arguably most other terrestrial organisms - carabid beetles are one of the most worthwhile model groups for biological studies.

The environmental impacts of genetically modified crops is still a controversial issue in Europe. The overall risk assessment framework has recently been reinforced by the European Food Safety Authority(EFSA) and its implementation requires harmonized and efficient methodologies. The EU-funded research project AMIGA − Assessing and monitoring Impacts of Genetically modified plants on Agro-ecosystems − aims to address this issue, by providing a framework that establishes protection goals and baselines for European agro-ecosystems, improves knowledge on the potential long term environmental effects of genetically modified (GM) plants, tests the efficacy of the EFSA Guidance Document for the Environmental Risk Assessment, explores new strategies for post market monitoring, and provides a systematic analysis of economic aspects of Genetically Modified crops cultivation in the EU. Research focuses on ecological studies in different EU regions, the sustainability of GM crops is estimated by analysing the functional components of the agro-ecosystems and specific experimental protocols are being developed for this scope.

The current methods to assess the environmental impacts of plant pests differ in their approaches and there is a lack of the standardized procedures necessary to provide accurate and consistent results, demonstrating the complexity of developing a commonly accepted scheme for this purpose. By including both the structural and functional components of the environment threatened by invasive alien species (IAS), in particular plant pests, we propose an environmental risk assessment scheme that addresses this complexity. Structural components are investigated by evaluating the impacts of the plant pest on genetic, species and landscape diversity. Functional components are evaluated by estimating how plant pests modify ecosystem services in order to determine the extent to which an IAS changes the functional traits that influence ecosystem services. A scenario study at a defined spatial and temporal resolution is then used to explore how an IAS, as an exogenous driving force, may trigger modifications in the target environment. The method presented here provides a standardized approach to generate comparable and reproducible results for environmental risk assessment as a component of Pest Risk Analysis. The method enables the assessment of overall environmental risk which integrates the impacts on different components of the environment and their probabilities of occurrence. The application of the proposed scheme is illustrated by evaluating the environmental impacts of the invasive citrus long-horn beetle, Anoplophora chinensis. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

International audience; With the establishment of the Plant Health Panel in 2006, EFSA became the body responsible for risk assessment in the plant health area for the European Union (EU). Since then more than 70 outputs have been produced dealing with the full range of organisms harmful to plant health across all crop types and plants in the environment. There has been an increasing trend towards producing scientific opinions which are full pest risk assessments for the whole EU territory. In its work, and as a contribution to the wider development of risk assessment methodology, the Panel has developed a series of guidance documents. These deal with the peer review of existing pest risk assessments, a framework for conducting risk assessments which harmonise standards set by the International Plant Protection Convention and the legislative requirements of the EU, and extension of this framework to include environmental risk assessment and the evaluation of risk reducing options. Quantitative approaches have become increasingly important during this time. The Panel has developed such methods in climatic mapping (in association with the Joint Research Councils), application of spatial spread models, re-evaluation of quantitative pathway analyses, and in statistical modelling of experimental data. A Plant Health Network has been established to facilitate interaction with EU Member States, especially in relation to data collection and co-ordination of risk assessment activities. At the current time a revision of the EU Plant Health Regime is being formulated. The legislative consequences of the revision will be of considerable significance for the work of the Plant Health Panel.

Following a request from the European Commission, the Panel on Plant Health was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on a pest risk analysis for Thaumetopoea processionea L. prepared by the UK. The Panel was also asked to consider in its opinion the plant health risk of T. processionea to the whole EU territory.The oak processionary moth, Thaumetopoea processionea, is established in Europe and feeds primarily on deciduous oak (Quercus) species. The insect has one generation per year and overwinters as eggs laid on branches of oak trees. After emergence, the larvae feed gregariously and from the 5th instar form a communal silken nest on the tree from which they typically migrate in procession to feed. Feeding may result in partial or complete tree defoliation. From the third instar, the larvae produce urticating hairs which may cause allergic reactions in humans and animals.The Panel examined in detail the UK document to determine whether the evidence presented in the document supports the conclusions reached for the assessment area of the UK, including Northern Ireland and the Channel Islands.To consider the risks posed to the whole area of the European Community, the Panel analysed additional information obtained from a review of the literature and from consultation with experts in the EU. The Panel conducted a preliminary climatic analysis to explore the establishment in the whole EU area, based on temperature accumulation.Based on the above, the Panel reaches the following conclusions:1.With regard to the evaluation of the UK document:•the Panel agrees that the probability for entry on the plants for planting pathway is moderate to high. It further agrees that the probability of entry of T. processionea on the oak roundwood pathway is low;•the Panel agrees that the probability of establishment of T. processionea in the southern area of the UK is high given the presence of breeding populations in London and Jersey, the widespread distribution of oak trees and the favourable climatic conditions in the southern part of the assessment area;•in the UK document evidence is not presented to support the statement that the impact of the oak processionary moth on oak trees is major. Pest management measures applied in areas where the pest is established relate primarily to human health effects and thus are not considered to be a reliable indicator of the magnitude of plant health impact of T. processionea;•the Panel concludes from an evaluation of the risk assessment provided for the assessment area of the UK and review of additional information, that T. processionea may enter, establish and spread in the UK and has the potential to cause negative effects on the health of Quercus spp. although there is a high level of uncertainty relating to the magnitude of the effects on wood yield and quality which are directly attributed to T. processionea;•for the plants for planting pathway, visual inspection, pest surveillance and the establishment of pest free areas or places of production are proposed as risk management options in the UK document. The Panel agrees that uncertainties relating to adult dispersal and the absence of tested surveillance methods may influence the effectiveness and practical implementation of the management options proposed. Further analysis on natural dispersal by flight would assist in evaluation of entry pathways and risk management measures, including those taken in the area of the UK where the pest is present and under official control;•the Panel agrees that the management options proposed for the roundwood pathway can reduce the risk of introduction i.e. removal of bark, restriction of time of year of felling and export of roundwood. There are uncertainties regarding the effectiveness of visual inspection for the presence of nests and the practicality of bark removal for oaks.2.With regard to the risk assessment conducted for the whole EU territory:•T. processionea occurs in many Member States of the EU territory, but the Panel found no reports to suggest that the pest is established in Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta or Sweden;•the presence of the pest in many areas of the EU territory provides opportunity for natural dispersal of T. processionea into adjacent areas where it is not currently established. Natural dispersal of adults may be restricted by geographic barriers (e.g. sea, mountains);•the results from the exploratory analysis conducted by the Panel indicate that spring and summer temperatures are suitable for larval and pupal development in parts of all EU member states where the pest is currently absent. Overwintering survival is not considered to be a key factor in defining the northern limits to the distribution. Limited availability of host plants (Quercus spp.) and low summer temperatures are likely to restrict the potential area of establishment to southern areas of the most northern EU member states;•reports of the plant health impact of T. processionea range from low to high. Due to the high level of variation in the level of plant health impact in the pest’s current area of distribution, more detailed analysis is required to assess the consequences of further spread in areas where it is not currently established in the EU;•the Panel considers that the degree of uncertainty is high. The main uncertainties relate to:■differences in the magnitude of the pest effects reported from different areas of the EU where the pest is established,■the plant health impact directly attributed to T. processionea alone and in combination with other stress factors contributing to tree mortality,■factors affecting the health status and susceptibility of Quercus spp. to defoliation by T. processionea,■the current distribution of T. processionea in the EU territory and lack of biological data needed to estimate the potential expansion of the range of T. processionea,■natural dispersal capabilities of T. processionea females and effectiveness of surveillance methods.Phytosanitary measures are unlikely to prevent natural dispersal of the pest. Phytosanitary measures aimed at plants for planting could, however, reduce the probability of introduction of the pest into areas of the EU territory where the pest is currently absent, or present but under official control. Therefore, the Panel concludes that T. processionea may be considered as a harmful organism and hence is potentially eligible for addition to the list of harmful organisms in Council Directive 2000/29/EC

Following a request from the European Commission, the Panel on Plant Health was asked to provide a scientific opinion on the report “Evaluation of Strawberry Nursery Plant Cold Treatments on Survival of the Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci” submitted to the European Commission by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) as technical justification for a derogation from requirements listed in Annex IV, Part A, Section 1, point 46 of the Council Directive 2000/29/EC[2]. The Panel reviewed the report to indicate methodological issues of concern and evaluated the effectiveness of the treatment proposed for the elimination of B. tabaci whiteflies from consignments to be shipped to the EU. In addition, the Panel clarified which viruses listed in the Annexes of Council Directive 2000/29/EC can be transmitted by strawberry plants and by B. tabaci. The Panel concludes that due to the poor quality of the report submitted and to serious shortcomings in the experimental design the report does not demonstrate the effectiveness of the cold treatment proposed. Although there is potential for the development of a cold treatment protocol for the elimination of B. tabaci from strawberry plant consignments, reliable mortality estimates for the proposed cold treatment of 28 degrees Fahrenheit (-2.2 degrees Celsius) for 2 weeks cannot be derived from this study. No B.tabaci-transmitted viruses are currently known to infect strawberry and no viruses of Fragaria spp. listed in Directive 2000/29/EC are known to be transmitted by B. tabaci. However, adult whiteflies of B. tabaci on strawberry consignments can carry plant viruses irrespective of whether strawberry is a host plant for these viruses and thus represent a pathway for the introduction of non-European viruses. There is also some uncertainty concerning the extent to which known or unknown B. tabaci-transmitted viruses could infect strawberry. Two whitefly-transmitted viruses have been recently confirmed as associated with strawberry pallidosis disease occurring in the US: Beet pseudo-yellows virus (BPYV) and Strawberry pallidosis associated virus (Spiv) but are only known to be transmitted by the greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum and not by B. tabaci. Strawberry plants for planting are vegetatively propagated and are thus subject to infection by viruses. Irrespective of the presence of B. tabaci, strawberry transplants from US may represent a pathway for the introduction of any non-European viruses (and other potentially harmful organisms) of Fragaria. This applies for example to SPaV, which is not reported as present in the EU and, if introduced, could be further spread by its vector, the glasshouse whitefly T. vaporariorum, which is widely established in the EU.