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A total of 5993 litter items divided into 13 categories were found at 25 beaches located along the Atlantico Department coastline, Caribbean of Colombia, with an average litter abundance of 7 items/m. Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering (AHC), Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) and Principal Components Analysis (PCA) were applied with the objective of highlighting similarities and contrasts between litter categories and abundances. Results indicated two specific groups of beaches in terms of amounts of litter. The first group is composed of 17 “dirty beaches” (urban, resort and village) while the second group includes 8 “clean beaches” (village and resort). This division was confirmed by means of the EA/NALG (2000) grading system, which highlighted that 68% of beaches belonging to the Atlantico Department coastline are in an unacceptable condition of cleanness. Current patterns of litter abundance and accumulation are related to sources as well as beach characteristics such as degree of exposition and morphodynamic state.

Unmanned aerial systems (UAS, aka drones) are being used to map macro-litter on the environment. Sixteen qualified researchers (operators), with different expertise and nationalities, were invited to identify, mark and categorize the litter items (manual image screening, MS) on three UAS images collected at two beaches. The coefficient of concordance (W) among operators varied between 0.5 and 0.7, depending on the litter parameter (type, material and colour) considered. Highest agreement was obtained for the type of items marked on the highest resolution image, among experts in litter surveys (W = 0.86), and within territorial subgroups (W = 0.85). Therefore, for a detailed categorization of litter on the environment, the MS should be performed by experienced and local operators, familiar with the most common type of litter present in the target area. This work provides insights for future operational improvements and optimizations of UAS-based images analysis to survey environmental pollution.

This baseline paper shows the Indo-Pacific mussel Perna viridis (Asian green mussel) inhabiting on floating plastic substrates in the Atlantico Department, as well as rafting on marine debris found at the Via Parque Isla de Salamanca (Magdalena). Both observations are the northernmost record of the species found in the Colombian Caribbean Sea. The above finding opens a new door that suggests that larval dispersion alone may not be the only process responsible for the presence of this invasive suspension-feeder bivalve because this species needs specific vectors for its dispersal. Some organisms such Perna viridis can persist in the marine environment, but they do not necessarily have a rafting capability that allows them to move over long distances. Floating structures as well as marine debris can serve as optimal substrates in the marine environment, contributing to an increase in the problems of non-native species on sites with a high degree of susceptibility to species invasion.

Coastal-erosion management actions require a knowledge of sediment behaviour and interchange in all related offshore, shore and inland environments. Approaches to managing erosion include hard/soft protection measures (hold/advance the line), accommodation, managed retreat, use of ecosystems and sacrifice (do nothing). In reshaping these options, an essential addition is the most attractive but usually the least used strategy: Intervention Concerning the Erosion Causes (ICEC). Minimizing erosion via ICEC not only means specific local actions, but certainly also involves the restoration of natural protective habitats, and even the removal of anthropogenic structures that block sediment production and its flow to and through coastal systems. The spatial and temporal environmental, physical and social knowledge related to the area of interest forms the core of the ICEC approach to solve or at least minimize coastal erosion.

Over the last 50 years, coastal erosion has become a serious problem, rising in magnitude and dominance along the Caribbean coastline of Colombia. Circa 50% of this important area for the country is undergoing serious erosion problems related to a multiplicity of factors contrasted by their degree of influence and magnitude, e.g. sedimentary imbalances, extreme waves, ecosystems destruction and sea level rise. Coastal protection related with hard structures has been the first, and in some cases, the only management strategy for these erosion problems. At the beginning of 2016, at least 1484 hard structures (both cross and longshore, such as, groins, seawalls, breakwaters, amongst others) have been built along the Colombian Caribbean coast, the highest concentrations being found in tourist cities. A significant percentage (close to 90%) of these hard structures have not been very successful or have failed in their purpose. These hard structures have altered the natural conditions of the study area, producing impacts such as i) coastal armoring, ii) reduced sediment supplies to downdrift areas, iii) intensification of erosion processes, iv) generation of nearby new erosion hot spots, v) deterioration of coastal scenery quality, among others. This paper describes and evaluates the functionality of coastal protection strategies used up to the present and delves into management aspects of coastal protection in the Caribbean coast of Colombia. It also indicates the current and future coastal protection scene for the region and highlights major trends and challenges faced by users, land owners, and coastal managers.

With a global increase in coastal development, together with increasing storminess and continuing sea level rise, coastal erosion has become a serious problem along a significant percentage of coastlines of many countries. Coastal erosion and shoreline management plans are often implemented on an action-reaction and post-disaster basis, resulting in installation of hard engineering structures, such as, groins, seawalls, revetments, gabions and breakwaters. These hard stabilization structures usually alter the natural environment of the coast, producing negative impacts. They do little to work with nature, and sustainability is a currently a critical issue. Under present and future environmental conditions, the world requires smarter coastal protection strategies that are adaptable, sustainable, multi-functional and economically viable to help solve immediate and predicted coastal erosion problems. An ecosystem-based approach based on the creation and restoration of coastal ecosystems, such as wetlands (e.g. mangroves), biogenic reef structures (e.g. corals, oysters, and mussels), seagrass beds and dune vegetation can offer optimal natural alternatives to help solve coastal erosion. Coastal ecosystems have some capacity for self-repair and recovery, and can provide significant advantages over traditional hard engineering approaches against coastal erosion. Also, they play a vital role in reducing the susceptibility of coastal communities to hazards through their multiple roles in processes, including sediment capture, system roughness and thus attenuation of wave energy. This paper seeks to undertake a general review of adaptation and protection measures against coastal erosion issues, based on incorporation of ecology and ecosystem services into coastal erosion management strategies.

Many coastlines throughout the world are retreating, as a result of erosion and sea level rise. The damage incurred to property, infrastructure, coastal flood defence, and the loss of ecosystem services and agricultural land have substantial economic repercussions. For many coastal regions located in developing countries, the assessment of the spatial extent of coastal erosion is very time-consuming and is often hampered by lack of data. To investigate the suitability of global open access data for coastal erosion assessments at regional scale six biogeophysical variables (geological layout, waves, sediment balance, tides, storms, and vegetation) were integrated using the Coastal Hazard Wheel approach (CHW). Original datasets with global coverage were retrieved from the internet and from various research institutes. The data were processed and assigned to the CHW classes, so that the CHW method could be applied to assess coastal erosion hazard levels. The data can be viewed in the Coastal Hazard Wheel App ( www.coastalhazardwheel.org ) that also allows the coastal erosion hazard levels to be determined for each point at coastlines around the world. The application of the CHW with global open access data was tested for the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Colombia and revealed a high to very high erosion hazard along 47% of the Caribbean coast and along 23% of the Pacific coast. The application provides additional information on capital stock near the coast, as a tentative indication of assets at risk. This approach provides a straightforward and uniform erosion hazard identification method that can be used for spatial planning on coastal developments at a regional scale.

Some marine invertebrates can inhabit floating substrates, and raft over long distances, becoming a significant environmental problem in terms of alien species and habitat disruption. On the Atlantico Department beaches (Colombia) woody debris and plastic litter dominate (86%) the types of refuse on the beaches with their densities ranging from 0.82–1.72 items m−1. Such litter and woody debris generate the optimal conditions for floating colonizers. In this work, 26 beaches were surveyed, and 16 of them (62%) were found to have marine fauna using litter and woody debris as a substrate for potential rafting and dispersal. Serpulidae polychaete tubes, goose barnacles Lepas (Anatifa) anserifera Linnaeus, 1767, and the bryozoans Arbopercula tenella (Hincks, 1880), Arbopercula angulata (Levinsen, 1909), plus three unidentified species were found colonizing woody debris, seeds, plastic and glass bottles. These findings of woody debris and litter facilitating the arrival and dispersal of non-native species on this coast, demonstrate that preventive management of such refuse in coastal habitats goes beyond simply preserving coastal esthetics.

Woody Debris (WD) can be an essential component on beaches, influencing both the biological and physical functions and processes of this ecosystem. However, the presence of WD on beaches can conflict with their uses (e.g., tourism, fishing). Along 25 beaches, located on the central Caribbean coast of Colombia, a total of 4,219 WD pieces were found. The average abundance was 1.7 WD items/m, but this value ranged significantly between beaches (from 3.8 items/m to 0.001 items/m). Application of two evaluation indices, based on WD data, highlights that most of the beaches have a very high abundance of WD within overall refuse content and this WD most of time fully covers the beach area. In the same way, a Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) was developed to show similarities and differences between beaches concerning WD abundances. This analysis highlights that the central Caribbean of Colombia can be divided into three specific groups of beaches according to WD abundances. Current WD patterns of abundance and accumulation are related to beach characteristics as well as the degree of beach exposure. In the same way, WD found in the study area reflects a strong influence of longshore-current transport. Understanding the ecological role that WD currently plays along the study-area beaches is necessary to planning and implementing appropriate management strategies.

Although coastal dunes exhibit typical vegetation which involves species adapted to extreme environmental conditions, the mobilization and colonization by non-native species represents a challenge in its conservation and management. In this work, eight dune systems located along the Atlantico Department, Caribbean coast of Colombia were surveyed, finding within them the presence of two plant species recognized as invasive: Calotropis procera and Cryptostegia madagascariensis. The impacts of these two invasive plant species can be significant at all ecological levels in the dune systems. The above demands the implementation of urgent management actions. Eradication seems the optimal control alternative, however preventing invasive plant species from infesting new areas is more cost-effective and efficient than trying to restore the system after it is infested. Data presented in this paper is the first step in the future development of an early detection program in the study area.

Along 24 beaches of the Central Caribbean Coast of Colombia, plastic items were collected and grouped into 43 different typologies. The average plastic abundance was 4.54 items/m2 being eight typologies responsible for 82% of all plastic collected. The application of the Clean Coast Index (CCI) and the Plastic Abundance Index (PAI) allows categorization of the study area as "Extremely Dirty" coastal strip with a "Very High Abundance" of plastics. Beaches were statistically grouped into three specific types: moderate, bad and extremely bad environmental conditions. The typology and magnitudes of plastics found in the study area suggest a combination of sources that primarily include dumping and direct activities on the beach. Plastic medical and sanitary waste, ocean/waterway items, and plastic items related to smoking-related activities also were observed.

Along the Vina del Mar - Concon coastal strip 11,894 litter items were collected, and grouped into 48 different categories (11 litter typologies). The average litter abundance was 0.25 items/m2, plastic items, and cigarette butts being the most common. Hazardous litter can be found along the entire study area, reaching 28.9% (3438 items of 11,894 total items collected distributed in 14 different categories), and an average of 0.071 items/m2. The application of environmental evaluation indices based on litter data, allows categorizing the study area as a clean-moderate coastal strip with some presence of hazardous litter items, and unsatisfactory environmental conditions. Studied sectors were statistically grouped into three specific types that ranged from sectors in optimal environmental conditions (Group A) to sectors in adverse environmental conditions (Group C). The typology and magnitudes of litter found along the study area suggest a combination of sources that mainly include direct activities on the beach (recreational and smoking-related) as well dumping. In the same way, sanitary waste, ocean/waterway items, and items related to surfing activities were observed. Strategies for litter management and environmental quality improvement need to be developed and enforced.

Thomas, T.; Rangel-Buitrago, N.; Phillips, M.R.; Anfuso, G.; Williams, A.T.. and Oakley, J.A.. 2016. Subaerial rotation on an open coast beach: PendineWest Wales, UK. In: Vila-Concejo, A.; Bruce, E.; Kennedy, D.M., and McCarroll, R.J. (eds.), Proceedings of the 14th International Coastal Symposium (Sydney, Australia). Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 75, pp. 482–486. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Beach profiles and storm related forcing agents were used to assess subaerial beach rotation on an open coast macro-tidal beach. Analysis highlighted a negative phase relationship existed between the beach extremities and variation between negative/positive correlations within the central region identified that medium timescale open coast beach rotation existed. Cross-correlation showed timelag variations in subaerial volume exchange between adjacent sectors lagged behind one another by up to 18 months. While, annually averaged storm climate results highlighted a reduced tempora...

In response to a high number of manuscripts on the general topic of Coastal Hazards, Vulnerability and Risk Assessments, and the exponential growth in related papers in the literature, the Ocean & Coastal Management Journal proposed to produce a set of related articles in an virtual special issue on “Vulnerability Assessments as a Tool for the Coastal and Marine Hazards Management”. This collection of 32 articles provides a focal point for such related current studies and, in part, seeks a commonality in nomenclature and application, particularly in regard to coastal management.

A total of 7563 anthropogenic litter (AL) items, grouped into twelve different typologies, were collected along 25 beaches located on the central Caribbean coast of Colombia. The average AL abundance was 6.05 items/m2, plastic items being the most common reaching a total percentage of 88.9% with an average density of 5.38 items/m2. Application of 3 evaluation indices, based on the AL data, placed most of the beaches into the status of unacceptable conditions of cleanness (Dirty to Extremely Dirty), and into mediocre to unsatisfactory environmental status. Hazardous anthropogenic litter (HAL), occurred in considerable amounts with hazardous items reaching a high of 7% (502 items of 7563 total items collected), and an average of 0.40 items/m2. Beaches were statistically grouped into four specific types that ranged from beaches in good environmental conditions (Group A) to beaches in extremely adverse environmental conditions (Group D). The typology and magnitudes of AL found along the study area suggest a combination of sources that are associated with the multiple usages developed along this region's coast. Anthropogenic litter is mainly related to land-based sources, and these generating source activities can be found in nearby basins and/or on the same beaches where the litter remains. This paper proposes four key actions to specifically reduce AL, as well as an 8-step agenda to address solutions to the broader management of litter problems.

The coastal zone of Cartagena city, Colombia provides illustration for applying risk assessments as a basis for guiding coastal management. Much of this coastal reach is heavily urbanized with a few areas of suburban to rural zones. In this study 32.6 km of shoreline under the city's jurisdiction were evaluated for coastal erosion management, calculating the Hazard and Vulnerability Indexes, which together constitute the Coastal Erosion Risk Index which provides a single numerical evaluation of risk. A range of variables were utilized in the calculations including forcing processes (wave height, storm surge, littoral exposure), coastal susceptibility (sandy and rocky shores: dune height, percent washovers, beach width, beach slope, cliff/platform, rock types, structure, weathering), as well as socio-economic, ecological and cultural factors (e.g., land use, percent urbanized, population density, infrastructure, cultural heritage, agency conservation/protection, ethnic communities, etc.). Coastal forcing and susceptibility are the basis for determining the Hazard, resulting mostly from induced susceptibility as a result of 60 years of over-reliance on shore-hardening structures, interrupting/reducing sediment supply, and over-development in terms of urbanization (loss of protective landforms, irreversible coastline modification, beach narrowing, and the growing coastal squeeze). From a management viewpoint, much of the Cartagena urban area has limited options, but the buffer zone between the shoreline and development must be increased (e.g., no new development; planned retreat), building codes updated (e.g., building floors at/below ground level should be flood-proofed, and have uses compatible with/recoverable from flooding/wave impact), and minimize additional shore-hardening (e.g., utilize beach nourishment). Rural and suburban areas in the region still have time to adopt more stringent management including development bans, disallowing replacement of buildings lost to erosion/flooding, large set-back requirements for new development, utilizing ecosystem management for natural protection, and removal of some groin systems. Virtually all management solutions will be costly, so plans are needed at the government level to develop financing systems.

On the Colombian continental shelf, 12 km SW of the municipality of Galerazamba, Department of Bolivar, is the northern-most island of the Colombian Caribbean: Isla Arena. Despite being remote and uninhabited, this island is being affected by one of the most persistent problems in the marine environment: Marine Anthropogenic Litter (MAL). In this first Colombian insular MAL study, a total of 1436 MAL items were collected along Isla Arena, equivalent to an average abundance of 2.87 items/m2. MAL items belong to 54 categories that are grouped in nine material typologies. These typologies include plastic (36 categories), metal (6), glass (3), medical waste (3), machined wood (2), pottery (1), sanitary waste (1), rubber (1) and cloth (1). Isla Arena now is considered as an “Extremely dirty” site in terms of the Clean Coast Index. Hazardous litter items (sharp and toxic) occur in percentages as high as 10.2% (146 items, Avg: 0.29 items/m2). Along the island, current MAL amounts are so elevated that simple clean-up operations are an insufficient solution, and restoration measures are needed. MAL mainly comes from land-based sources, primarily generated by activities in the adjacent mainland river basins and coastal urban developments, particularly in the area of beaches. Marine anthropogenic litter found on Isla Arena reflects a strong influence from longshore-current transport. Management solutions need to begin at the same litter sources, and must include analytics, policy reforms and enforcement, and private and public investments.

Eight beach/dune systems located along the Atlantico Department, Caribbean coast of Colombia were surveyed to determine litter influences over its scenic quality. Application of the Coastal Scenic Evaluation System (CSES) categorized these systems into two of the five available classes. Five of the investigated beach/dune systems belong to Class IV, while three systems correspond to V. Classes I, II and III were not found. Along these beach/dune systems, a total amount of 1908 litter items were collected with average abundances of 4.2 items/m2. Currently, 82% of surveyed sites are under an unacceptable condition of cleanness. User's habits as well as bad litter management practices are directly responsible for the decline of scenic quality of the Atlantico Department beach/dune systems. Litter management must be centered on strategies to eliminate or minimize litter sources. Specific remedial actions need to be defined and developed.

Eight touristic beaches along the north coast of Santa Catarina Island, Brazil were assessed to determine litter influence on scenic quality. The application of the Coastal Scenic Evaluation System (CSES) categorized these beaches into four of the five available classes. Six of the investigated beaches belong to Class III (n = 3) and V (n = 3), while two beaches correspond to Class II and Class IV. Class I beaches were not found. A total amount of 4291 litter items weighing 29 kg were collected with average abundances of 0.29 items m2. Beach user's habits as well bad management practices along the adjoining river basins play an essential role on litter source, and are directly responsible for the decline of scenic quality of Santa Catarina Island Beaches. In fact, litter has a direct relation with the low scenic scores determined in the surveyed beaches.

Along twenty-five beaches belonging to the Atlantico Department, Colombia Caribbean coast, the litter impacts over cleanliness and environmental status were determined. A total of 5993 litter items, divided into 13 categories, were found with an average litter abundance of 3.5 items/m. Plastic and polystyrene dominated the samples with 58% (Avg: 1.97 items/m) and 30% (Avg: 1 items/m), while rubber, textile, paper, processed wood, metal, glass, biohazards, fishing gear, organic, mix, and other items reached 13%. Characteristics of these items in the study area allow recognition of three main litter sources: i) riverine related litter, ii) litter related to direct activities developed on beaches and iii) litter related to fishing. Litter amounts placed most of the beaches into the status of unacceptable conditions of cleanness, and in a mediocre to bad environmental status. In general terms, beaches along the study area can be divided into two specific groups. Eight beaches compose a group of sites in optimal environmental conditions (village and resort), while a second group includes 17 beaches with bad environmental conditions (urban, resort and remote). Urgent efforts are necessary to improve and conserve beaches of the Atlantico Department, and the typology of solutions sugguested can be divided into four general approaches: Prevention, Mitigation, Removal and Behavior Change. Better environmental quality can be reached if the people in the Atlantico Department coastline as well as all of Colombia shift mindsets and behavior towards producing less waste and improving anti-littering practices.

Marine Debris (MD) magnitudes, impacts, and management were determined from samples collected along an urban coastal strip area of 95,015 m2 belonging to Las Salinas Beach, located in the famous touristic Chilean city of Vina del Mar (Valparaiso Region). Along the entire area a total of 27,990 marine debris items were collected, equivalent to an average abundance of 0.34 items m2. All items were grouped into 13 categories, with cigarette butts and plastic items dominating the samples with 38% (Avg: 0.13 items m2) and 32% (Avg: 0.11 items m2), respectively. Other marine debris groups were paper-cardboard 15% (Avg: 0.05 items m2), polystyrene 6% (0.02 items m2), machined wood 3% (Avg: 0.01 items m2) and metal 2% (Avg: 0.01 items m2). Glass, brick, organic items, cloth, sanitary waste, rubber, and other pollutants represent less than 4%. Las Salinas Beach can be considered as having “moderate” cleanliness in terms of the Clean Coast Index, however, hazardous debris items (sharp and toxic) reach a percentage of 43% (12089 items, Avg: 0.15 items m2). Beach user's detrimental littering habits play the lead role as the principal debris source, and are directly responsible for the decline for the environmental quality of Las Salinas Beach. Information presented in this work can encourage the development of optimal management strategies for preventing marine debris pollution along this area.