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Real-world evidence (RWE) provides external validity, supplementing and enhancing the randomized controlled trial data with valuable information on patient behaviors and outcomes, turning efficacy and safety results into real-world effectiveness and risks, but the use of RWE is associated with challenges. The objectives of this communication were to (1) summarize all guidance on how to conduct an RWE meta-analysis (MA) and how to develop an RWE cost-effectiveness model, (2) to describe our experience, challenges faced and solutions identified, (3) to provide recommendations on how to conduct such analyses. No formal guidelines on how to conduct an RWE MA or to develop an RWE cost-effectiveness model were identified. Using the context of non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants in stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation, we conducted an RWE MA, after having identified sources of uncertainty. We then implemented the results in an RWE cost-effectiveness model, defined as a model where all inputs come from RWE, including all parameters related to treatment effect. Based on challenges faced, our first recommendation relates to the necessity of conducting sensitivity analyses, either based on clinical or methodological considerations. Our second recommendation is the need for extensive collaboration with a wide range of experts, during the development of the analyses protocols, the implementation of the analyses and the interpretation of the results. RWE may address a number of gaps related to the treatment effect, and RWE economic evaluations for the treatment effect can provide extremely valuable insights into real-world economic value of interventions. As the increased recognition of the value of RWE could influence health technology assessment decision, and current practices, this communication supports the urgent need of more formal guidelines.

We investigate the gender gap in hypertension misreporting using the French Constances cohort. We show that false negative reporting of hypertension is more frequent among men than among women, even after conditioning on a series of individual characteristics. As a second step, we investigate the causes of the gender gap in hypertension misreporting. We show that women go to the doctor more often than men do and that they have better knowledge of their family medical history. Once these differences are taken into account, the gender gap in false negative reporting of hypertension is reversed. This suggests that information acquisition and healthcare utilisation are crucial ingredients in fighting undiagnosed male hypertension.

AIM: Edoxaban, a nonvitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulant, is an oral factor Xa inhibitor approved for the prevention of stroke and systemic embolism in adult patients with atrial fibrillation and for the treatment and secondary prevention in adult patients with venous thromboembolism (VTE). This study details the design of the Edoxaban Treatment in routiNe clinical prActice for patients with Atrial Fibrillation in Europe (ETNA-AF-Europe) study - a postauthorization observational study, which is part of the postapproval plan for edoxaban agreed with the European Medicines Agency. METHODS: The ETNA-AF-Europe study (Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT02944019) is a multicenter, prospective, observational study that enrolled 13 980 patients with atrial fibrillation treated with edoxaban from 852 sites across 10 European countries (Austria, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom). Patients treated with edoxaban were prospectively enrolled and will be followed up for 4 years with yearly follow-up visits. ASSESSMENTS: The primary objective of the ETNA-AF-Europe study is to assess the real-world safety of edoxaban by evaluating bleeding events, including intracranial hemorrhage; drug-related adverse events, such as hepatic events; and cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. In addition, efficacy will be assessed by recording major adverse cardiovascular events including stroke, systemic embolic events, transient ischemic attacks, and also VTE episodes, acute coronary syndromes, and hospitalizations related to cardiovascular condition. Event rates will be compared with event rates reported in the PREvention oF thromboembolic events-European Registry in Atrial Fibrillation in atrial fibrillation (PREFER in AF) and PREFER in AF Prolongation registries, and in the Effective Anticoagulation with Factor Xa Next Generation in Atrial Fibrillation - Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 48 study datasets.

Introduction In the KEYNOTE-024 trial, pembrolizumab demonstrated significant improvements in progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) versus Standard-of-Care (SoC) platinum-based doublets for first-line treatment of PD-L1 -positive (≥50%) metastatic Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) patients with no EGFR mutations or ALK translocations. This study aims to assess the cost-effectiveness of pembrolizumab versus SoC platinum-based chemotherapy from the French healthcare system perspective. Methods A three-state partitioned-survival model was adapted to project outcomes and costs of squamous and non-squamous NSCLC patients respectively, over a 10-year time horizon. Clinical and utility data were collected from the trial. A network meta-analysis was performed to consider platinum-based triplets also used for non-squamous NSCLC. Direct medical costs were considered based on ressources identified from the trial and literature. Costs and outcomes were discounted at 4% per year. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) were calculated as cost per Life Year (LY) and cost per Quality-Adjusted Life Year (QALY). Sensitivity and scenario analyses were performed to assess the robustness of results. Results For squamous NSCLC, pembrolizumab was projected to increase life expectancy of patients by 0.93 LY (11 months), and 0.74 QALY (9 months) for an incremental cost of €62,032 compared with platinum-based doublets. The ICER of pembrolizumab versus platinum-based doublets was €66,825/LY and €84,097/QALY. For non-squamous NSCLC, pembrolizumab was projected to increase life expectancy of patients by 0.85–1.32 LYs (10.2–15.8 months) and 0.64–1.02 QALYs (7.7–12.2 months) for an incremental cost varying from €-14,947-+47,064 depending on the specific comparator. The ICER of pembrolizumab versus platinum-based chemotherapy with paclitaxel plus bevacizumab was €62,846/LY and €78,729/QALY; regimens including pemetrexed were dominated. Results were most sensitive to extrapolations of survival outcomes and assumptions for continued effectiveness and treatment duration of pembrolizumab. Conclusions Pembrolizumab appears cost-effective versus SoC chemotherapy for first-line treatment of PD-L1-positive (50%) metastatic NSCLC patients in France, assuming willingness-to-pay under 100,000€/QALY (OECD threshold in the discussion section).

International audience; This paper investigates the impact of delaying retirement on mortality among the French population. We take advantage of the 1993 pension reform in the private sector to identify the causal effect of an increase in claiming age on mortality. We use administrative data which provide detailed information on career characteristics, dates of birth and death. Our results, precisely estimated, show that an exogenous increase of one year in the claiming age has no significant impact on the probability to die, measured between age 61 and 79, even when we allow for nonlinear effects of treatment intensity. To test the power of our sample to detect statistically significant effects for rare events like death, we compute minimum detectable effects (MDEs). Our MDE estimates suggest that, if an impact of later retirement on mortality would be detectable, it would remain very small in magnitude.

Background Diseases consequence on individual work as much as consequences of being absent from work are matters of interest for decision makers. Methods We analyzed lengths of absenteeism and related indirect costs for patients with a paid activity in the year following the diagnosis of early stage breast cancer, in the prospective OPTISOINS01 cohort. Both human capital and friction costs approach were considered for the valuation of lost working days (LWD). For the analysis, the friction period was estimated from recent French data. The statistical analysis included simple and multiple linear regression to search for the determinants of absenteeism and indirect costs. Results 93 % of the patients had at least one period of sick leave, with on average 2 period and 186 days of sick leave. 24 % of the patients had a part-time resumption after their sick leave periods, during 114 days on average (i.e. 41 LWD). Estimated indirect costs were 22,722.00 € and 7,724.00 € per patient, respectively for the human capital and the friction cost approach. In the multiple linear regression model, factors associated with absenteeism were: the invasive nature of the tumor (p = .043), a mastectomy (p = .038), a surgery revision (p = .002), a chemotherapy (p = .027), being a manager (p = .025) or a craftsman (p = .005). Conclusion Breast cancer lead to important lengths of absenteeism in the year following the diagnosis, but almost all patients were able to return to work. Using the friction cost or the human capital approach in the analysis led to an important gap in the results, highlighting the importance of considering both for such studies.

Patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) have an increased risk of both ischemic events and bleeding complications resulting from antithrombotic therapy. These events are particularly common in patients with a concomitant indication for oral anticoagulation, such as those with atrial fibrillation, and are associated with a substantial healthcare resource burden. Advances in procedural aspects of PCI have led to marked improvements in outcomes and a consequent reduction in the costs resulting from PCI-associated complications. Furthermore, recent randomized clinical trials have investigated the optimal antithrombotic strategy in the specific case of patients with atrial fibrillation undergoing PCI, leading to a shift toward the tailoring of antithrombotic therapy according to the patient's individual stroke and bleeding risks. Here we review these recent advances, with a particular focus on the improvements in antithrombotic strategies offered by the non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants.

International audience; Background: Morbidity and mortality associated with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) imposes a substantial economic burden on the UK healthcare system. Objectives: An existing Markov model was adapted to assess the real-world cost-effectiveness of rivaroxaban and apixaban, each compared with a vitamin K antagonist (VKA), for stroke prevention in patients with NVAF from the National Health Service (NHS) and personal and social services (PSS) perspective. Methods: The model considered a cycle length of 3 months over a lifetime horizon. All inputs were drawn from real-world evidence (RWE): baseline patient characteristics, clinical event and persistence rates, treatment effect (meta-analysis of RWE studies), utility values and resource use. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed. Results: The incremental cost per quality-adjusted life year was £14,437 for rivaroxaban, and £20,101 for apixaban, compared with VKA. The probabilities to be cost-effective compared with VKA were 90% and 81%, respectively for rivaroxaban and apixaban, considering a £20,000 threshold. In both comparisons, the results were most sensitive to clinical event rates. Conclusions: These results suggest that rivaroxaban and apixaban are cost-effective vs VKA, based on RWE, considering a £20,000 threshold, from the NHS and PSS perspective in the UK for stroke prevention in patients with NVAF. This economic evaluation may provide valuable information for decision-makers, in a context where RWE is more accessible and its value more acknowledged.

Objective The objective was to assess the real-world cost-effectiveness of rivaroxaban, versus vitamin K antagonists (VKAs), for stroke prevention in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) from a French national health insurance perspective. Methods A Markov model was developed with a lifetime horizon and cycle length of 3 months. All inputs were drawn from real-world evidence (RWE) studies: data on baseline patient characteristics at model entry were obtained from a French RWE study, clinical event rates as well as persistence rates for the VKA treatment arm were estimated from a variety of RWE studies, and a meta-analysis provided comparative effectiveness for rivaroxaban compared to VKA. Model outcomes included costs (drug costs, clinical event costs, and VKA monitoring costs), quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) and life-years (LY) gained, incremental cost per QALY, and incremental cost per LY. Sensitivity analyses were performed to test the robustness of the model and to better understand the results drivers. Results In the base-case analysis, the incremental total cost was €714 and the total incremental QALYs and LYs were 0.12 and 0.16, respectively. The resulting incremental cost/QALY and incremental cost/LY were €6,006 and €4,586, respectively. The results were more sensitive to the inclusion of treatment-specific utility decrements and clinical event rates. Conclusions Although there is no official willingness-to-pay threshold in France, these results suggest that rivaroxaban is likely to be cost-effective compared to VKA in French patients with AF from a national insurance perspective.

Background Projections estimate an increase of 50% of the incidence of lung cancer by 2030. Early-stage non-small cell lung cancer represented 19% of NSCLC cases diagnosed in the US between 2005 and 2011. There is rising evidence in favour of lung cancer screening, which will reduce the occurrence of later-stage lung cancers while raising the incidence of early-stage NSCLC. Current guidelines state that for early-stage NSCLC, surgical resection should be performed, and stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT) is an option for patients who are non-medically operable. In this study, we compared the cost-effectiveness of SBRT with lobectomy in medically operable patients. Methods We developed a Markov model based on the survival results of two randomized studies comparing SBRT and video assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) lobectomy in early-stage NSCLC, to describe survival and treatment related complications of patients treated for early-stage NSCLC. This analysis was conducted from the French payer perspective on a lifetime perspective. Utility values, recurrence risks, and costs were adapted from the literature. Deterministic (DSA) and probabilistic (PSA) sensitivity analyses were performed to assess the influence of the assumptions made. Results The Markov model developed was consistent with survival data reported in the pool analysis of the randomized studies. SBRT and lobectomy total costs were 9,234.15€ and 10,726.98€, respectively, and the quality-adjusted life expectancies were 16.35 and 15.80 QALYs, respectively. The DSA, run on every assumption made, revealed that the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was mainly sensitive to the decrement of utility caused by treatment related complications and initial cost of both surgery and SBRT. The PSA showed that SBRT had the highest probability of cost-effectiveness compared to lobectomy. Conclusions This is the first medico-economic study evaluating SBRT and lobectomy in stage I NSCLC based on randomized studies, and our analyses suggest that SBRT is dominant over lobectomy in operable early-stage NSCLC treatment. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses confirmed that this result was robust and that it was not modified by the assumptions made in the Markov model building.

BACKGROUND The physical, social and mental burden of psoriasis is well known, but its occupational impact has been less investigated. OBJECTIVE To assess the impact of psoriasis on the working life of patients compared with the general population. METHODS A national survey compared people with and without psoriasis using online questionnaires. In addition to the demographic, medical and professional characteristics, data on recent absenteeism and presenteeism were captured using the validated WPAI-PSO questionnaire. RESULTS The patient sample comprised 714 with psoriasis (PsO), including 81 treated with systemic therapies (PsoST), and 84 with associated psoriatic arthritis (PsO + PsA). The control sample comprised 604 active subjects representative of the French population. Compared to controls, the impact of the disease on working life was no greater in PsO patients. Conversely, unemployment within the past 5 years and mean number of sick leaves within the previous year were more frequent in PsO + PsA. In patients with active psoriasis skin lesions, all aspects of the WPAI questionnaire were negatively impacted in PsoST and PsO + PsA patients, but not in PsO patients: Levels of absenteeism were 3.3% in controls, 5.6% in PsO (NS), 8.3% in PsoST (P

Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of methodological choices in a meta-analysis of real-world evidence (RWE) comparing three non-vitamin-K antagonist oral anticoagulants...

Introduction: Numerous real-world studies have compared non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants (NOACs) with vitamin K antagonists (VKAs) in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF). A meta-analysis was performed to synthesize the available evidence. \ud \ud Methods: Systematic searches were performed through 12/2016 to identify non-randomized NVAF studies comparing NOACs with VKAs, and reporting effectiveness, safety, or persistence. \ud \ud Results: Of 562 citations identified, 49, 79, and 18 compared rivaroxaban, dabigatran, and apixaban, respectively, with VKAs and were included. Compared with VKAs, rivaroxaban was associated with a reduced risk of ischemic stroke (IS) (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.83, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.75-0.93), intracranial haemorrhage (ICH) (HR = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.52-0.90), and non-persistence (HR = 0.62, 95% CI = 0.60-0.65). Dabigatran was associated with a significantly lower risk of IS (HR = 0.80, 95% CI = 0.65-0.98) and ICH (HR = 0.45, 95% CI = 0.36-0.58), but not for non-persistence (HR = 0.91, 95% CI = 0.53-1.55), compared with VKAs. Apixaban was associated with a lower risk of ICH than VKAs (HR = 0.41, 95% CI = 0.28-0.60), but was not different to VKAs in terms of IS (HR = 1.01, 95% CI = 0.87-1.17) or non-persistence (HR = 1.08, 95% CI = 0.81-1.45). \ud \ud Conclusion: NOACs appear to be at least as effective and safe as VKAs for stroke prevention in patients with NVAF.

Background French clinical recommendations suggest prescribing long-acting injectable (LAI) antipsychotics to patients with a maintenance treatment indication in schizophrenia. Despite this, and due to their relatively high acquisition and administration costs, LAIs are still underused in clinical practice in France, thus highlighting the need for pharmacoeconomic evaluations. Objective Our objective was to estimate the cost effectiveness of paliperidone LAI (or paliperidone palmitate), a once-monthly second-generation LAI antipsychotic, compared with the most common antipsychotic medications for the maintenance treatment of schizophrenia in France. Methods A Markov model was developed to simulate the progression of a cohort of schizophrenic patients through four health states (stable treated, stable non-treated, relapse and death) and to consider up to three lines of treatment to account for changes in treatment management. Paliperidone LAI was compared with risperidone LAI, aripiprazole LAI, olanzapine LAI, haloperidol LAI (or haloperidol decanoate) and oral olanzapine. Costs, quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) and number of relapses were assessed over 5 years based on 3-month cycles with a discount rate of 4 % and from a French health insurance perspective. Patients were considered to be stabilised after a schizophrenic episode and would enter the model at an initiation phase, followed by a prevention of relapse phase if successful. Data (e.g. relapse or discontinuation rates) for the initiation phase came from randomised clinical trials, whereas relapse rates in the prevention phase were derived from hospitalisation risks based on real-life French data to capture adherence effects. Safety and utility data were derived from international publications. Additionally, costs were retrieved from French health insurance databases and publications. Finally, expert opinion was used for validation purposes or in case of gaps in data. The robustness of results was assessed through deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. Results All LAI antipsychotics were found to have similar costs over 5 years: approximatively €55,000, except for paliperidone LAI which had a discounted cost of €50,880. Oral olanzapine was less costly than LAIs (i.e. €50,379 after 5 years) but was associated with fewer QALYs gained and relapses avoided. Paliperidone LAI dominated aripiprazole LAI, olanzapine LAI and haloperidol LAI in terms of costs per QALY, and it was associated with slightly fewer QALYs when compared with risperidone LAI (i.e. 3.763 vs 3.764). This resulted in a high incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) (i.e. €4,770,018 per QALY gained) for risperidone LAI compared with paliperidone LAI. Paliperidone LAI was more costly than olanzapine oral but associated with more QALYs (i.e. ICER of €2411 per QALY gained for paliperidone LAI compared with oral olanzapine). Paliperidone LAI had a probability of being the optimal strategy in more than 50 % of cases for a willingness-to-pay threshold of €8000 per QALY gained. Conclusion This analysis, to the best of our knowledge, is the first of its kind to assess the cost effectiveness of antipsychotics based on French observational data. Paliperidone LAI appeared to be a cost-effective option in the treatment of schizophrenia from the French health insurance perspective.

Background Venous thromboembolism (VTE, including deep vein thrombosis [DVT] and pulmonary embolism [PE]) has an annual incidence rate of 104–183 per 100,000 person-years. After a VTE episode, the two-year recurrence rate is about 17%. Consequently, effective and safe anticoagulation is paramount. Edoxaban is a direct oral anticoagulant (DOAC) approved VTE treatment. Current safety and efficacy data are derived from clinical trials, and information about treatment durations beyond 12 months are not available. Methods ETNA-VTE-Europe is an 18-month prospective, single-arm, non-interventional, multinational post-authorisation safety study. Approximately 310 sites across eight European countries (Austria, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Kingdom) will participate in the study, with the intention to represent the regional distributions of centres, healthcare settings and specialties. An estimated cohort of 2700 patients will be recruited, the only enrolment criteria being acute symptomatic VTE, no participation in an interventional study, and treating physician decision to prescribe edoxaban independently from the registry. Data from patient medical records and/or telephone interviews will be collected at baseline, 1, 3, 6, 12 and 18 months. The primary objective is to evaluate the 18-month rate of symptomatic VTE recurrence in patients with VTE treated with edoxaban outside a clinical trial. The co-primary objective is to evaluate the real-world rates of bleeding and adverse drug reactions. Secondary outcomes include rates of other patient-relevant safety events, adherence to and discontinuation of edoxaban. Furthermore, 12-month ETNA-VTE-Europe data will be considered in the context of those for patients receiving different anticoagulants in the PREFER in VTE registry and Hokusai-VTE clinical trial. Conclusions ETNA-VTE-Europe will allow the safety and effectiveness of edoxaban to be evaluated over an extended period in acute symptomatic VTE patients encountered in routine clinical practice. Findings will be informative for European practitioners prescribing edoxaban as part of real-world VTE treatment/prevention. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02943993.

Background: To enhance usage of health technology assessment (HTA) in decision-making, it is important to prioritise important barriers and facilitators to the uptake of HTA. This study aims to quantify and compare the relative importance of barriers and facilitators regarding the use of HTA in several European countries.Methods: A survey containing two best-worst scaling (BWS) object case studies (i.e. barriers and facilitators) were conducted among 136 policy makers and HTA researchers from the Netherlands, Germany, France, and United Kingdom. Hierarchical Bayes analysis generated the mean relative importance score (RIS) for each factor and subgroup analyses assessed differences between countries.Results: Six barriers (RIS5) and five facilitators (RIS6) were deemed highly important. Eleven barriers and ten facilitators differed in their importance between countries. Policy characteristics, research & researcher characteristics, and organisation & resources were particularly important to facilitate uptake of HTA, such as an explicit framework for decision-making and research of sufficient quality.Conclusion: The most paramount barriers and facilitators to HTA usage were quantified. For all countries it is crucial to create an explicit framework for the decision-making context to include HTA evidence. Country differences in the quality of research emphasize the need for enhanced international collaboration in HTA.

The ANI reform mandates all private sector employers to offer sponsored Complementary Health Insurance (CHI) to all of their employees beginning on January 1st, 2016. This research simulates the likely effects of this mandate on the welfare of the population considering the Expected utility theory framework. The results show that the ANI reform may induce an increase in social welfare only if wages and CHI’s premiums remain the same. Assuming that premiums of individual CHI contracts increase because of the new risks segmentation, the reform may hardly impact the social welfare. The gain in welfare that benefit private sector employees is therefore offset by the loss of welfare that suffer the individuals insured by an individual CHI contract or who chose to be uninsured before the reform. Considering in addition that employers will include their subsidy amount into wages, the reform may greatly reduce the social welfare.; Depuis le 1er janvier 2016, les employeurs du secteur privé ont obligation de proposer et de financer partiellement une complémentaire santé à tous leurs salariés. Dans ce travail, nous simulons les gains et les pertes de bien-être à attendre de cette réforme sur l’ensemble de la population en mobilisant la théorie de l’utilité espérée. Les résultats montrent que la réforme augmente le bien-être collectif si et seulement si les salaires et les primes des contrats restent inchangés. En considérant que les primes des contrats individuels augmentent du fait de l’accord national interprofessionnel (ANI), l’impact de la réforme est quasi nul sur le bien-être collectif. Le gain en bien-être des salariés qui bénéficient de la réforme est alors contrebalancé par la perte de bien-être subie par les personnes couvertes en individuel ou que la réforme oblige à s’assurer. En considérant en sus que les employeurs intègrent le montant de leur subvention aux salaires, l’ANI réduit fortement le bien-être collectif.

Background Innovative pricing agreements for medicines have been used in European markets for more than 20 years, and offer an opportunity for payers and pharmaceutical companies to align on value, optimise speed to patients, and share risk. Developing successful agreements requires alignment between key stakeholders, yet there is a lack of summative data on how current innovative agreements are used in the real-world (e.g. the level of realised access to medicines, and rebates and discounts, which are often non-transparent). Methods This research used a web-based survey of payer stakeholders to determine what kinds of innovative agreements are currently used, anticipated future usage, attitudes, and drivers of adoption. Participants included national and regional payers (or former payers) and hospital-level decision makers. Results Sixty-six payers completed the survey. Respondents expected that the use of innovative pricing agreements will remain the same or increase in the future. Overall, they felt there is a positive attitude towards new schemes, and that innovative agreements are likely to be used when they reduce total costs or reduce uncertainty. Conclusions Given payer expectations, pharmaceutical companies should continue to take a role in ensuring that they have sufficient capacity to support payers in the design and implementation of innovative pricing agreements.

Introduction: Multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) could potentially solve current methodological difficulties in the appraisal of orphan drugs.Areas covered: We provide an overview of the existing evidence regarding the use of MCDA in the appraisal of orphan drugs worldwide. Three databases (Pubmed, Embase, Web of Science) were searched for English, French and German literature published between January 2000 and April 2017. Full-text articles were supplemented with conference abstracts. A total of seven articles and six abstracts were identified.Expert commentary: The literature suggests that MCDA is increasingly being used in the context of appraising orphan drugs. It has shown itself to be a flexible approach with the potential to assist in decision-making regarding reimbursement for orphan drugs. However, further research regarding its application must be conducted.

France stands out as a country with a low labor force attachment of older workers. A reversal in the trend of French labor participation rates over 50 is under way, partly due to the pension reforms that took place since 1993. The French ageing process is driven by large gains in life expectancy and Pension reforms allocate part of these gains to work rather than to retirement. The implicit assumptions guiding the reforms have been that additional years of life are years with a health status that can be considered reasonably compatible with work. If this is not the case, the idea of sharing these additional years of life between work and retirement is questionable.Considering mortality and health status, we question the fact that the reforms may have gone too far in increasing the retirement age. To tackle these issues, we rely on two different methodological approaches developed in the economic literature: one based on the gap in employment rates across time for given mortality rates; the other using the work/health relationship measured at certain ages to predict the health-related work capacity of older age groups at the same period of time. Both methods aim at providing measures of additional work capacity. This capacity may be defined as a measure of the distance between current retirement ages and what we call the “health barrier”, i.e. the age at which health prevents people from working longer.Both methods predict high average levels of additional work capacity. However, the picture becomes somewhat different when disaggregating the results by social groups or education. Our results emphasize the idea that policies aiming at activating any estimated additional work capacity should take into account, when possible, the heterogeneity of health conditions in the population. Moreover, additional work capacity cannot be a general indicator of how much seniors should work. The methods used here indeed leave aside many factors that determine the employment rate of older workers.

International audience; Aim: In order to integrate malaria Intermittent Preventive Treatment in infants (IPTi) into the Ghana national immunization programme, there was the need to evaluate the feasibility of IPTi by assessing the intervention operational issues including its implementation costs, and its cost effectiveness. Study Design: Cross-sectional study. Place and Duration of Study: Upper East Region, Ghana, between July 2007 and July 2009 Methods: We calculated the costs of administrating IPTi during vaccination sessions; the costs of programme implementation during the first year of implementation (start-up costs) and in routine years (recurrent costs). For the purposes of cost-effectiveness analysis, all economic costs (including financial and opportunity costs) and the net cost were estimated. To estimate the cost effectiveness ratios of IPTi, the aggregate cost of providing the intervention for a reference target population of 1,000 infants was divided by its health outcome. Sensitivity analyses were carried out to understand the results robustness. Results: IPTi gross costs in start up and in routine years were estimated at 70.66 cents and 29.72 cents per dose, or $2.0 and $0.87 per infant, respectively. The gross cost per DALY saved was estimated at $3.49 and the net cost of IPTi for 1,000 infants was $-3,416.38 in the routine years rending IPTi a highly cost saving intervention. Sensitivity analyses showed that the cost per DALY saved never went up more than $4.50 maintaining the intervention still highly cost effective. Conclusion: IPTi in Ghana is a highly and robust cost effective intervention. The intervention is cost-saving and should be scaled up nationally to save children’s health and economic capital.

Background:Although non-drug interventions are widely used in patients with Alzheimer's disease, few large scale randomized trials involving a long-term intervention and several cognitive-oriented approaches have been carried out. ETNA3 trial compares the effect of cognitive training, reminiscence therapy, and an individualized cognitive rehabilitation program in Alzheimer's disease to usual care.Methods:This is a multicenter (40 French clinical sites) randomized, parallel-group trial, with a two-year follow-up comparing groups receiving standardized programs of cognitive training (group sessions), reminiscence therapy (group sessions), individualized cognitive rehabilitation program (individual sessions), and usual care (reference group). Six hundred fifty-three outpatients with Alzheimer's disease were recruited. The primary efficacy outcome was the rate of survival without moderately severe to severe dementia at two years. Secondary outcomes were cognitive impairment, functional disability, behavioral disturbance, apathy, quality of life, depression, caregiver's burden, and resource utilization.Results:No impact on the primary efficacy measure was evidenced. For the two group interventions (i.e. cognitive training and reminiscence), none of the secondary outcomes differed from usual care. The larger effect was seen with individualized cognitive rehabilitation in which significantly lower functional disability and a six-month delay in institutionalization at two years were evidenced.Conclusions:These findings challenge current management practices of Alzheimer's patients. While cognitive-oriented group therapies have gained popularity, this trial does not show improvement for the patients. The individualized cognitive rehabilitation intervention provided clinically significant results. Individual interventions should be considered to delay institutionalization in Alzheimer's disease.

International audience; The role of social norms in accounting for the different attitudes of men and women with respect to health is still an open issue. In this research, we investigate the role of social norms associated with specific gender environments in the workplace in accounting for differences in health-reporting behaviours across men and women. Using the 2010 European Working Conditions Survey, we build a database containing 30,124 observations. We first replicate the standard result that women report worse health than men, whatever the health outcome we consider. We then proxy social norms by the gender structure of the workplace environment and study how the latter affects self-reported health for men and women separately. Our findings indicate that individuals in workplaces where women are a majority tend to report worse health than individuals employed in male-dominated work environments, be they men or women. These results are robust to controlling for a large array of working condition indicators, which allows us to rule out that the poorer health status reported by individuals working in female-dominated environments could be due to worse job quality. This evidence suggests that social norms associated with specific gender environments play an important role in explaining differences in health-reporting behaviours across gender, at least in the workplace.

This article analyses the solidarity of the French health insurance system with a new index which measures the cross-subsidies from the rich to the poor induced by health expenses and financing, using the 2012 Inès-Omar microsimulation model. The solidarity index is decomposed by financing sources (public and private insurances and out-of-pocket payments) and discussed with respect to equity principles. The solidarity is less driven by the horizontal equity in use of the system than by the vertical equity in finance insured by the progressivity of the public part of the system. The magnitude of social health inequalities explains a large part of the concentration among the poorest of public health expenses, even if the solidarity of the system is limited by barriers to access to care.; Cet article analyse la solidarité assurée par le système d’assurance maladie français grâce à un nouvel outil mesurant les transferts opérés entre classes de revenu par les consommations de soins et leur financement, appliqué au modèle de microsimulation Inès-Omar 2012. L’indice de solidarité est décomposé selon les sources de financement (assurances obligatoires et complémentaires, restes à charges) et discuté au regard de principes d’équité. La solidarité tient moins à l’équité horizontale dans la consommation de soins qu’à l’équité verticale du financement garantie par la progressivité de l’assurance obligatoire.Les inégalités sociales de santé contribuent largement à expliquer l’importance des transferts reçus de l’assurance publique par les plus modestes, même si les barrières d’accès aux soins limitent la solidarité du système.

Breast cancer screening diminishes breast cancer mortality only if it is performed regularly. We study the effects of various socioeconomic and health characteristics as well as how the French screening system itself influence screening regularity. We specifically examine whether the screening modality chosen (organized or opportunistic screenings) influences screening regularity. Our results suggest that organized screening increases the probability to screen regularly. In addition, low-income women or those who lived adverse life events tend to screen less regularly than wealthier ones.; Le dépistage du cancer du sein ne diminue sa mortalité que si le dépistage est effectué régulièrement. Nous étudions les effets des caractéristiques socio-économiques et de santé ainsi que la façon dont le système français de dépistage influence la régularité du dépistage. Nous examinons particulièrement si la modalité de dépistage choisie (dépistage organisé ou individuel) influence la régularité du dépistage. Nos résultats suggèrent que le dépistage organisé augmente la probabilité de recourir régulièrement au dépistage. En outre, les femmes ayant un faible revenu ou ayant vécu des épisodes de précarité ont moins régulièrement recours au dépistage que les femmes plus aisées.

International audience; This paper reviews the literature on the impact of work on health. We consider work along two dimensions: (i) the intensive margin, i.e. how many hours an individual works when employed and (ii) the extensive margin, i.e. whether an individual is in employment or not. We show that most of the evidence on the negative health impact of work found in the literature is based on situations in which workers have essentially no control (no choice) over the amount of work they provide. In essence, what is detrimental to health is not so much work per se as much as the gap which may exist between the actual and the desired amount of work, both at the intensive and extensive margins.

International audience; This study investigates the relation between early life conditions and adult obesity in France, using a rich data set collected through the 2003 nationally representative Life History Survey. No salient factor emerged in men, while in women, after controlling for current socio-demographic characteristics, a relation was found between obesity and the following factors: father's occupation (OR=3.2 for women whose father was a clerical worker, versus those whose father was in a higher-level occupation); experience of economic hardship in childhood (OR=2.0), and; high parity (OR=2.1 for parities of more than 3 versus parity of 1). Neither early family history nor mother's working status surfaced as significant factors. Those findings highlight a definite gender pattern, with a strong association between early disadvantage and obesity in women, but not in men. Potential mechanisms are discussed, particularly the "habitus", the "thrifty phenotype" and the "feast-famine" hypotheses, and possible interactions with childbearing and motherhood. An integration of social and biological perspectives is needed to reach a better understanding of the processes involved, and to achieve progress in primary and secondary prevention.

International audience; In this paper, we estimate the causal impact of a positive shock on supplementary health insurance coverage on theuse of specialists who balance bill. For that purpose, we evaluate the impact on patients' behavior of a shock consistingof better coverage of balance billing, while controlling for supply side drivers, i.e. proportions of physicians who balance bill and physicians who do not. We use a panel dataset of 58,336 individuals observed between January 2010 and December 2012, which provides information, at the individual level, on health care claims and reimbursements providedby basic and supplementary insurance. Our data makes it possible to observe enrollees that are heterogeneous in their propensity to use physicians who balance bill. We observe them when they are all covered by the same supplementary insurer, with no coverage for balance billing, and after 5,134 of them switched to other supplementary insurers whichoffer better coverage.Our estimations show that better coverage contributes to a rise in medical prices by increasing the demand forspecialists who balance bill. On the whole sample, we find that better coverage leads individuals to raise their proportion of consultations of specialists who balance bill by 9 %, which results in a 34 % increase in the amount of balance billingper consultation. However, the effect of supplementary health insurance clearly depends on the local supply side organization. The inflationary impact arises when specialists who balance bill are numerous and specialists who do notare relatively scarce. When people have a real choice between physicians, a coverage shock has no impact on the use ofspecialists who balance bill. When the number of specialists who charge the regulated fee is sufficiently high, there isno evidence of limits in access to health care, nor of an inflationary effect of supplementary coverage.

Background. Home care for patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) relies largely on informal caregivers (ICs). Methods. We assessed ICs objective burden (Resource Utilization in Dementia measuring informal care time (ICT)) and ICs subjective burden (Zarit Burden Inventory (ZBI)). Results. ICs (N=99) were spouses (70%), mean age 52 years, assisting disabled patients with a mean EDSS (Expanded Disability Status Scale) of 5.5, with executive dysfunction (mean DEX (Dysexecutive questionnaire) of 25) and a duration of MS ranging from 1 to 44 years. Objective burden was high (mean ICT = 6.5 hours/day), mostly consisting of supervision time. Subjective burden was moderate (mean ZBI = 27.3). Multivariate analyses showed that both burdens were positively correlated with higher levels of EDSS and DEX, whereas coresidency and IC’s female gender correlated with objective burden only and IC’s poor mental health status with subjective burden only. When considering MS aggressiveness, it appeared that both burdens were not correlated with a higher duration of MS but rather increased for patients with severe and early dysexecutive function and for patients classified as fast progressors according to the Multiple Sclerosis Severity Score. Conclusion. Evaluation of MS disability course and IC’s personal situation is crucial to understand the burden process and to implement adequate interventions in MS.

International audience; La France se distingue par la mixité de son système d’assurance-maladie. Deux types d’opérateurs concourent à la couverture des mêmes soins : la Sécurité sociale et les organismes complémentaires. Une telle organisation entraîne des coûts de gestion élevés et favorise la hausse des prix des soins. La régulation actuelle des complémentaires encourage aussi la sélection des risques, ce qui produit des inégalités dans l’accès à l’assurance et aux soins.

OS; International audience; This chapter aims to quantify and compare inequalities of opportunity in health across European countries considering two alternative normative ways of treating the correlation between effort, as measured by lifestyles, and circumstances, as measured by parental and childhood characteristics, championed by Brian Barry and John Roemer. This study relies on regression analysis and proposes several measures of inequality of opportunity. Data from the Retrospective Survey of SHARELIFE, which focuses on life histories of European people aged 50 and over, are used. In Europe at the whole, inequalities of opportunity stand for almost 50% of the health inequality due to circumstances and efforts in Barry scenario and 57.5% in Roemer scenario. The comparison of the magnitude of inequalities of opportunity in health across European countries shows considerable inequalities in Austria, France, Spain and Germany, whereas Sweden, Poland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Switzerland present the lowest inequalities of opportunity. The normative principle on the way to treat the correlation between circumstances and efforts makes little difference in Spain, Austria, Greece, France, Czech Republic, Sweden and Switzerland, whereas it would matter the most in Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Poland and Denmark. In most countries, inequalities of opportunity in health are mainly driven by social background affecting adult health directly, and so would require policies compensating for poorer initial conditions. On the other hand, our results suggest a strong social and family determinism of lifestyles in Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Poland and Denmark, which emphasises the importance of inequalities of opportunity in health within those countries and calls for targeted prevention policies.

International audience; This paper estimates the causal effect of perceived job insecurity – that is, the fear of involuntary job loss – on health in a sample of men from 22 European countries. We rely on an original instrumental variable approach on the basis of the idea that workers perceive greater job security in countries where employment is strongly protected by the law and more so if employed in industries where employment protection legislation is more binding; that is, in induastries with a higher natural rate of dismissals. Using cross-country data from the 2010 European Working Conditions Survey, we show that, when the potential endogeneity of job insecurity is not accounted for, the latter appears to deteriorate almost all health outcomes. When tackling the endogeneity issue by estimating an instrumental variable model and dealing with potential weak-instrument issues, the health-damaging effect of job insecurity is confirmed for a limited subgroup of health outcomes; namely, suffering from headaches or eyestrain and skin problems. As for other health variables, the impact of job insecurity appears to be insignificant at conventional levels.

En France les cliniques privées jouent un rôle important dans l’offre de soins hospitaliers. En 2007, 56 % des séjours ont eu lieu dans des hôpitaux publics, 8 % dans des hôpitaux privés à but non lucratifs, qui participent au service public hospitalier (PSPH) et 36 % dans des hôpitaux privés à but lucratif (cliniques). Plusieurs rapports administratifs ont récemment montré qu’un séjour dans un hôpital public ou PSPH était plus coûteux que dans une clinique privée, suggérant que la productivité du secteur public était relativement faible. Cet article a pour but de comprendre les différences de productivité observées en France entre les hôpitaux publics, les hôpitaux PSPH et les cliniques privées. L’introduction de la Tarification à l’Activité (T2A) en 2004 visait à améliorer l’efficacité de la dépense pour les soins hospitaliers. La mise en œuvre du nouveau paiement est progressive, avec une application intégrale à partir de 2008. Dès le départ, les tarifs différaient selon que le séjour avait lieu dans un hôpital public ou un hôpital privé à but lucratif. Actuellement, les paiements par séjour dans une pathologie donnée sont en moyenne 27 % plus élevés dans le secteur public que dans le secteur privé. Une convergence des grilles tarifaires des secteurs public (et PSPH) et privé est prévue à l’horizon 2018. Mettre en place cette convergence revient à supposer que les différences de coûts sont exclusivement dues à des différences d’efficacité, qui seraient éliminées par l’introduction d’une concurrence entre les deux secteurs. Notre objectif est d’examiner s’il existe une influence de la composition des séjours sur la productivité des hôpitaux en matière de soins aigus. Si tel est le cas, introduire de la concurrence entre les établissements sur la base de la T2A crée de fortes pressions en faveur d’une réorganisation de l’offre de soins. Ces changements sont souhaitables s’ils permettent d’améliorer l’efficacité dans la délivrance des soins hospitaliers. En revanche, il n’est pas souhaitable que le système de tarification crée des incitations à la sélection de patients ou à l’arrêt de la production de soins qui seraient importants du point de vue du bien-être collectif. Les données utilisées proviennent de deux bases administratives: les données du PMSI et celles de la SAE. La base finale contient 1 604 hôpitaux sur la période 1998-2003, dont 642 sont publics, 126 sont PSPH et 836 sont privés. Pour les soins aigus cette base est proche de l’exhaustivité: en 2003, elle représente 90% de l’ensemble des séjours de soins aigus en France métropolitaine. L’analyse couvre les six années précédant l’introduction de la T2A en France afin d’observer précisément la situation qui préexistait avant la mise en place de nouvelles incitations. Ce travail permet d’avoir un référentiel sur la situation du tissu hospitalier français et les performances comparées des établissements publics, PSPH et privés, avant la mise en place de la réforme. En synthétisant l’activité “multiproduit” de l’hôpital par un produit homogène défini selon des critères identiques, quel que soit le statut de l’hôpital, nous montrons que le diagnostic sur l’efficacité productive des hôpitaux publics dépend de la définition de la frontière de production : lorsque l’on utilise une fonction de production classique mettant en relation les inputs et l’output, les scores d’efficacité des hôpitaux publics sont inférieurs à ceux des hôpitaux PSPH, eux-mêmes inférieurs à ceux des cliniques privées. Mais l’ordre des performances relatives s’inverse lorsque l’on tient compte des caractéristiques de la patientèle et la composition des séjours des hôpitaux : à l’exception des petits établissements, les hôpitaux publics et PSPH apparaissent alors plus efficaces que les cliniques privées. Ces résultats doivent être interprétés à la lumière des différences de cahiers des charges encadrant les activités des hôpitaux publics et privés. Il est frappant de constater que la prise en compte d’indicateurs concernant la structure de l’activité et la composition de la patientèle modifie radicalement le diagnostic sur l’efficacité productive des hôpitaux publics. La plus faible productivité des hôpitaux publics s’explique principalement par le nombre de lits, des personnels médico-techniques en sureffectifs, la composition de leur patientèle et celle de leurs séjours (caractérisée entre autres par une faible proportion de séjours chirurgicaux). Elle ne s’explique pas par une moindre efficacité des hôpitaux publics.

Summary Lifelong immunoglobulin replacement is the standard, expensive therapy for severe primary antibody deficiencies. This treatment can be administrated either by intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) or subcutaneous infusions (SCIG) and delivered at home or in an out-patient setting. This study aims to determine whether SCIG is cost-effective compared with IVIG from a French social insurance perspective. Because both methods of administration provide similar efficacies, a cost-minimization analysis was performed. First, costs were calculated through a simulation testing different hypothesis on costs drivers. Secondly, costs were estimated on the basis of field data collected by a questionnaire completed by a population of patients suffering from agammaglobulinaemia and hyper-immunoglobulin (Ig)M syndrome. Patients' satisfaction was also documented. Results of the simulation showed that direct medical costs ranged from €19 484 for home-based IVIG to €25 583 for hospital-based IVIG, with home-based SCIG in between at €24 952 per year. Estimations made from field data were found to be different, with significantly higher costs for IVIG. This result was explained mainly by a higher immunoglobulin mean dose prescribed for IVIG. While the theoretical model showed very little difference between SCIG and hospital-based IVIG costs, SCIG appears to be 25% less expensive with field data because of lower doses used in SCIG patients. The reality of the dose difference between both routes of administration needs to be confirmed by further and more specific studies.

International audience; Background: Epidemiological evidence confirms that risk of developing type 2 diabetes is related to weight gain. Weight reduction is beneficial as relative risk is reduced to 0.13 for weight loss >20 kg. This raises the question of effectiveness of bariatric surgery on 1) weight loss and 2) diabetes-related outcomes in morbidly obese patients.Methods: We reviewed the literature using Medline. Only 2 meta-analyses reporting on both outcomes were included, as well as 50 systematic reviews or primary studies.Results: Meta-analyses mainly based on case series data as well as controlled studies confirm that bariatric surgery is highly effective in obtaining weight reduction in morbidly obese patients up to 60% of the excess weight, along with resolution of preoperative diabetes in more than 75% of cases. Among bariatric surgery techniques, malabsorptive procedures (biliopancreatic diversion and gastric bypass) appear to be more effective on both outcomes than restrictive procedures (gastroplasty and gastric banding).Conclusion: Even if more studies are needed to confirm current evidence, bariatric surgery is effective for controlling diabetes. It appears as an efficient strategy from economic modeling due to savings from reduction in diabetes-related costs.

The use of vaccines to prevent diseases in children, adults, and the elderly results in fewer medical visits, diagnostic tests, treatments, and hospitalisations, which leads to substantial savings in healthcare costs each year in Europe and elsewhere. Vaccines also contribute to reducing resource utilisation by preventing nosocomial infections, such as rotavirus gastroenteritis, which can increase hospital stays by 4–12 days. Vaccination also has an important role in the prevention of cancers with, for example, human papillomavirus or hepatitis B vaccines. Since the financial impact of cancer is high for patients, healthcare systems, and society as a whole, any cases prevented will reduce this impact. Newer vaccines, such as the herpes zoster vaccine, can provide an answer to unmet medical needs by preventing and reducing the severity of shingles and associated post-herpetic neuralgia, which are difficult conditions to treat. Thus, in the context of increasing pressure on healthcare budgets, vaccination can contribute to the sustainability of healthcare systems through reduced and more efficient use of healthcare resources.Keywords: vaccination; healthcare resource use; cancers; costs; nosocomial infections(Published: 12 August 2015)Citation: Journal of Market Access & Health Policy 2015, 3: 27043 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/jmahp.v3.27043

The Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) offers services to the population free of charge but these activities are costly with the greatest part being the cost of vaccines. In spite of the growing international solidarity towards funding for immunization, the growing objectives continue to outweigh the available resources. It is therefore crucial for any immunization system to seek greater efficiency so as to optimize the use of available means in a bid to ensure sustainability. It is in this light that we carried out this study which aims to assess the productive efficiency of routine EPI for children aged 0 - 11 months with respect to the fixed and outreach vaccine delivery strategies in Ngong health district. The study is descriptive and cross-sectional. Data were collected retrospectively for all 16 health centers of the district that offered EPI services during the period February - May 2009. The results show that: • Only 62% of planned outreach immunization sessions were effectively carried out mainly due to limited funds for transportation and staff availability. Consequently vaccine coverage was low (BCG: 70.1%, DPT-HB-Hib 3: 55.5%) and less resources (43%) were used for this strategy which served 52% of the target population - a major blow to equity. • The average cost per Fully Immunized Child (FIC) was 9,571 FCFA (19.22 USD) for the fixed strategy; 12,751 FCFA (25.61 USD) for the outreach and 10,718 FCFA (21.53 USD) with both strategies combined. These figures are high than those observed in many other African health districts. However, DPT-HB-Hib and yellow fever vaccines contributed to the increase as vaccines occupied 57% of the total cost. With DPT in lieu of DPT-HB-Hib the cost/FIC would be 6,046 FCFA (12.14 USD). Dropout rates too were high (28.1% for the fixed, 29.7% for outreach). • The cost of vaccines wasted in excess of the national norm at the level of health centers was 595,532 FCFA (1,196.15 USD), an amount that could cover the vaccine cost for 122 FIC (7.6% of the FIC during the period). This was accounted for as follows: BCG 1.1%, OPV 1.4%, DPT-HB-Hib 72.7%, measles 5.3%, yellow fever 19.5% • Therefore we suggest improved communication for EPI, the introduction of DPT-HB-Hib with liquid Hib and the effective implementation of planned outreach sessions.

Konfigurationen der familiären Hilfen für pflegebedürftige ältere Menschen in Europa. Anhand der Erhebung Share lässt sich untersuchen, welche Hilfe die Kinder den pfl egebedürftigen älteren Menschen von mindestens 65 Jahren in den europäischen Ländern leisten. Welche individuellen Verhaltensweisen führen zu Konfi gurationen familiärer Hilfe? Zwei Arten der Unterstützung kommen in Betracht, je nach dem, ob die Kinder mit ihren pfl egebedürftigen Eltern zusammenleben oder nicht. Der Anteil der älteren pfl egebedürftigen Menschen, die von ihrer Umgebung in irgendeiner Form Hilfe erhalten, ist bemerkenswert homogen: von 79 % in Schweden und in den Niederlanden bis 87 % in Italien. In den nordeuropäischen Ländern wird das seltenere Zusammenleben verschiedener Generationen durch eine häufi gere Hilfe der Kinder kompensiert. In den sechs untersuchten Ländern ist die Unterstützung der Kinder größer, wenn der Grad der Pfl egebedürftigkeit des Elternteils höher ist oder letzterer ohne Ehepartner lebt. Allerdings spiegelt sich das Nord-Süd-Gefälle in der Art und Weise wider, in der die Kinder bei Fehlen des Ehepartners ihren pfl egebedürftigen Elternteil unterstützen: vermehrtes Zusammenleben der Töchter im Süden und Ausweitung der Hilfe "von Fern“ durch die Söhne wie auch die Töchter im Norden. Lebt der Ehepartner beim pfl egebedürftigen Elternteil, ändert sich die Unterstützungslogik der Kinder. Bei Unterstützung des pfl egebedürftigen Elternteils durch seinen Ehepartner hängt die Hilfe der Kinder von individuellen Entscheidungen ab, deren Wahrscheinlichkeit mit der Zahl der Kinder zunimmt. Die Unterstützung von Elternteilen ohne Ehepartner würde dagegen einer Geschwisterlogik folgen, die ihnen unabhängig von der Zahl ihrer Kinder eine gleichwertige Hilfe gewährleistet. Bei zwei Geschwistern, deren Elternteil allein lebt, ist eine asymmetrische Wechselwirkung zwischen den Verhaltensweisen des älteren und des jüngeren Kinds festzustellen. Im Schnitt würde die Unterstützung des jüngeren von derjenigen des älteren Kinds abhängen (die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Unterstützung durch das jüngere Kind ist geringer, wenn sich das ältere um die Eltern kümmert), aber nicht umgekehrt., Family Assistance Configurations for Dependent Older People in Europe. The Share survey allows us to analyse the assistance given by their children to dependent persons aged 65 and over in European countries. How is individual behaviour structured to give rise to family assistance frameworks? Two relationships are envisaged, according to whether children live with their dependent parent or not. The proportion of dependent older people receiving support from their entourage in one form or another is remarkably constant, ranging from 79% in Sweden and the Netherlands to 87% in Italy. In northern countries, the lower level of intergenerational cohabitation is offset by the more frequent assistance given by non-cohabiting children. In the six countries studied here, children’s involvement is greater when the degree of dependence of the parent is higher and when the parent has no spouse. However, the north-south divide is apparent in the way in which children adapt to their dependent parent’s lack of a spouse: increased cohabitation of female children in southern countries, increased •remote” assistance from male and female children in northern countries. The presence of a dependent parent’s spouse seems to change children’s involvement relationships. If the dependent parent receives assistance from his or her spouse, children’s involvement depends on individual decisions, leading to an increasing probability of support where the number of children is higher. Support for single parents on the other hand seems to be driven by a sibling logic where the probability that the parent will be supported is identical however many children there are. Where a single parent has two children, there is a difference between the behaviour of the elder child and the younger. On average, the involvement of the younger child seems to depend on that of the elder (the probability that the younger becomes involved seems to be lower if the elder becomes involved), but the reverse is not true., L'enquête Share permet d'étudier l'aide apportée par leurs enfants aux personnes dépendantes âgées d'au moins 65 ans, dans les pays d'Europe. Comment les comportements individuels s'articulent-ils pour donner lieu à des configurations familiales d'aide ? Deux modalités d'implication sont envisagées, selon que les enfants cohabitent ou non avec leur parent dépendant. La proportion de personnes âgées dépendantes recevant un soutien de leur entourage, sous une forme ou sous l'autre, est remarquablement homogène : de 79 % en Suède et aux Pays-Bas à 87 % en Italie. Dans les pays du Nord, la moindre cohabitation inter-générationnelle est en effet compensée par une aide plus fréquente des enfants non cohabitants. Dans les six pays étudiés ici, l'implication des enfants est plus forte lorsque le degré de dépendance du parent est plus élevé et lorsqu'il n'a pas de conjoint. Cependant, le gradient Nord-Sud se retrouve dans la manière dont les enfants s'adaptent à l'absence de conjoint auprès de leur parent dépendant : accroissement de la cohabitation des filles au Sud, accroissement de l'aide « à distance » des fils comme des filles au Nord. La présence d'un conjoint auprès du parent dépendant semble modifier les logiques d'implication des enfants. Si le parent dépendant bénéficie de l'aide de son conjoint l'implication des enfants relève de décisions individuelles conduisant à une probabilité de soutien croissante avec le nombre d'enfants. L'implication auprès des parents sans conjoint relèverait au contraire d'une logique de fratrie visant à leur assurer une probabilité de soutien identique quel que soit le nombre de leurs enfants. Dans les fratries de deux enfants dont le parent est seul, une interaction asymétrique se dessine entre les comportements de l'aîné et du cadet. En moyenne, l'implication du cadet dépendrait de celle de l'aîné (la probabilité de s'impliquer du cadet serait plus faible si l'aîné s'implique lui-même), mais non l'inverse., La configuración de las ayudas familiares movilizadas entorno a los mayores dependientes en Europa . La encuesta Share permite estudiar la ayuda proporcionada por los hijos a las personas dependientes mayores de 65 años en los países europeos. ¿ Cómo se articulan los comportamientos individuales para dar lugar a confi guraciones familiares de ayuda? Existen dos modalidades de implicación según los hijos cohabiten o no con su progenitor dependiente. La proporción de personas mayores dependientes que reciben el apoyo de su entorno, bajo una forma u otra, es considerablemente homogénea: del 79 % en Suecia y en los Países Bajos al 87 % en Italia. En los países del norte, la menor cohabitación inter-generacional se compensa, en efecto, por una ayuda más frecuente de los hijos no cohabitantes. En los diez países estudiados, la implicación de los hijos es mayor cuando el grado de dependencia del progenitor es más elevado y cuando éste no tiene cónyuge. No obstante, el gradiente norte-sur se encuentra en la manera en qué los hijos se adaptan a la ausencia del cónyuge junto al progenitor dependiente: incremento de la cohabitación de las hijas al sur, incremento de la ayuda "a distancia” de los hijos e hijas al norte. La presencia de un cónyuge junto al progenitor dependiente parece modifi car la lógica de implicación de los hijos. Si el progenitor dependiente cuenta con la ayuda de su cónyuge, la implicación de los hijos depende de decisiones individuales que conlleva una probabilidad de apoyo creciente con el número de hijos. La implicación ante los progenitores sin cónyuge dependería, por el contrario, de una lógica de hermandad que pretenda garantizar una probabilidad de apoyo idéntica, independientemente del número de hijos. En las hermandades de dos hijos en que sólo queda un progenitor, se dibuja una interacción asimétrica entre los comportamientos del primogénito y del benjamín. En promedio, la implicación del menor dependería de la del mayor (la probabilidad de implicación del menor sería más baja si el mayor se implica él mismo), pero no la inversa. Agnès Wittwer, Fontaine Roméo, Gramain Agnès, Wittwer Jérôme. Les configurations d'aide familiales mobilisées autour des personnes âgées dépendantes en Europe. In: Economie et statistique, n°403-404, 2007. Santé, vieillissement et retraite en Europe. pp. 97-115.