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Background: Mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency is still present in many countries, particularly in pregnant women. Observational studies suggest that mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency during pregnancy may be associated with impaired thyroid function and child neurodevelopment. Randomized-controlled food trials to increase iodine status are scarce. We assessed the impact of an increased intake of cod during pregnancy on maternal iodine status and infant neurodevelopment. Methods: In this randomized-controlled trial, pregnant women in Bergen, Norway, recruited through Haukeland University Hospital, were randomly assigned (1:1) to an intervention of 200 g of cod twice a week for 16 weeks (gestational week 20–36) or to continue with their standard diet (control group). Randomization was done by lottery. Primary outcome was urinary iodine concentration (UIC) (spot samples from six consecutive days) measured postintervention. Secondary outcome was infant neurodevelopment assessed by the cognitive, language, and motor scales of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Developmental third edition (Bayley-III) at 11 months of age. In addition, maternal thyroid function was measured (thyrotropin [TSH], free triiodothyronine [fT3], free thyroxine [fT4]) at baseline and postintervention. Results: Between January 2016 until February 2017, 137 women were recruited. Postintervention UIC was higher in the intervention group (n = 61) [median (interquartile range, IQR) 98 (64–145) μg/L], compared with control (n = 61) [median (IQR) 73 (52–120) μg/L] (p = 0.028), also after adjusting for baseline UIC (p = 0.048). Infants of mothers in the intervention group had a lower cognitive composite score on the Bayley-III compared with the control group (p = 0.045). There were no group differences in the Bayley III language- or motor composite scores. Maternal thyroid hormones (TSH, fT3, fT4) did not differ between the groups postintervention. Conclusions: Increased cod intake during pregnancy improved the iodine status in women with mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency, however, did not affect thyroid function. The negative effect on cognition should be followed up to assess whether this is a stable effect over time. More studies are warranted to enable good health advice on iodine nutrition in pregnancy. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02610959. Registered November 20, 2015.

BackgroundAdequate nutrition is a public health challenge due to the increase in the incidence of diet-related diseases. The aim of this study was to examine food and nutrient intakes in the light of the current dietary guidelines of Poland and Norway. This is a suitable model for studying the diet quality in countries with different degrees of government intervention in the food market, which may affect food diversity available for citizens.MethodsThe food diversity on the market was assessed using national food balance sheets. To show the actual food and nutrient intake within countries, data from 24-h recalls from the national surveys, NORKOST 3 from Norwegians and WOBASZ II from Poles, were used. In order to evaluate whether dietary patterns comply with nutritional and dietary recommendations, the Norwegian and Polish recommendations for nutrition and the national food based dietary guidelines (FBDGs) were analyzed.ResultsSignificant differences between the national supplies for most food products were found. Only subtle differences in the national FBDGs and nutritional recommendations were found. Low compliance with the national FBDGs for milk, fish and sugar consumption in Poland was observed. The intakes of most nutrients were in line with the countries’ nutrition recommendations. The intakes of folate and vitamin D by both genders and the intake of iron among women, were inadequate in both countries. Calcium and magnesium intakes were below the recommended intake among the adult population of Poland, additionally, insufficient intake of potassium and thiamine was found among Polish women.ConclusionsDespite the limited availability of certain food products on the market, the diet of Norwegians was better balanced in terms of food consumed and micronutrient intakes. The good supply of various groups of food has not, however, reduced the problem of widespread deficiency of vitamin D and folic acid in the diet, and action should be taken at national level to eliminate their inadequacy. In view of increasing risk of non-communicable diseases, low compliance with the dietary guidelines requires educational campaigns aimed at increasing dietary literacy in vulnerable groups.

Background: Whereas the adverse effects of severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy are well documented, the effects of mild-to-moderate deficiency are not well established. Objectives: We aimed to explore whether iodine nutrition and timing of iodine supplement initiation are associated with thyroid function in pregnant and postpartum women. Methods: In this cohort study, 137 pregnant women were enrolled and followed up at gestational weeks (GWs) 18 and 36, and 3 and 6 mo postpartum. Thyroid function tests [thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), free triiodothyronine (fT3), and free thyroxine (fT4)], urinary iodine and creatinine concentration (UIC:Cr), and iodine intake (including iodine supplement use) were measured at each time point. The associations between thyroid hormone concentrations and UIC:Cr, iodine intakes, and iodine supplement use were estimated using multiple generalized estimating equation models. Results: The median UIC at GW18 was 94 μg/L, indicating mild-to-moderate iodine deficiency. UIC:Cr (β; 95% CI) per 100 μg/g was negatively associated with fT3 (-0.191; -0.331, -0.051) and fT4 (-0.756; -1.372, -0.141) concentrations. Iodine intake (β; 95% CI) per 100 μg/d was positively associated with TSH (0.099; 0.022, 0.177), and negatively associated with fT3 (-0.084; -0.0141, -0.027) and fT4 (-0.390; -0.599, -0.182) concentrations. Compared with no use of supplement, those initiating an iodine-containing supplement prepregnancy and continuing through pregnancy had lower TSH (estimated means) (1.35 compared with 1.68 mIU/L, P = 0.021), and higher fT3 (4.48 compared with 4.28 pmol/L, P = 0.035) and fT4 (15.2 compared with 14.4 pmol/L, P = 0.024) concentrations. Conclusions: Lower iodine availability during pregnancy and postpartum was associated with lower TSH, and higher fT3 and fT4 concentrations. The use of an iodine-containing supplement that was initiated prepregnancy and continuing through pregnancy was associated with lower TSH, and higher fT3 and fT4 concentrations, which may suggest improved thyroid function. These findings support the notion that optimization of iodine intake should start before pregnancy.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02610959. Keywords: iodine; iodine deficiency; iodine supplementation; pregnancy; thyroid hormones. © The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition.

Fish is an important dietary source of micronutrients, particularly in low-and middle-income countries. In Ghana, effective management of fish and the fisheries is essential for food, economic and nutrition security and is critical towards achieving many of the UN Sustainable Development Goals especially those pertaining to hunger, poverty, gender equality and life under water. Ghana has experienced significant economic growth in the last few decades, but increasing inequality, uncertainties in fish availability and unsustainable management of the fisheries are challenging local food and nutrition security. This literature review examines and evaluates the role of fish and fisheries in supporting FNS in Ghana, and highlights the lack of focus on fish in the literature with regard to regional food security and fisheries governance. Our review highlights the importance of ensuring the viability of small fish populations to enhance micronutrient availability and counteract micronutrient deficiencies in Ghana. Additionally, strengthening women's role in decision making and promoting female education and empowerment in the fisheries sector is an important strategy towards enhancing FNS in the region. publishedVersion

Seafood can be a source of contaminants, which may raise health concerns. The aim of this study was to analyse the levels of inorganic contaminants in commercially available seafood products and assess consumer exposure. Commercially available samples were collected from 2015-2018 and analysed as composite samples for mercury, lead, arsenic, and cadmium, using accredited methods. Levels of cadmium, lead, and arsenic were low and human exposure of these metals would be minimal from consumption of the analysed seafood products. Mercury levels were well below the EU maximum limit for mercury in fish. However, children, who are high consumers, might be at risk of exceeding the tolerable weekly intake for methyl mercury, when eating products with the highest mercury levels. The collected data can be used for future risk-benefit assessments as intake of processed seafood products represent a large proportion of the populations' seafood intake in Europe.

Vitamin D deficiency in pregnant women and their offspring may result in unfavorable health outcomes for both mother and infant. A 25hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) level of at least 75 nmol/L is recommended by the Endocrine Society. Validated, automated sample preparation and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods were used to determine the vitamin D metabolites status in mother-infant pairs. Detection of 3-Epi25(OH)D3 prevented overestimation of 25(OH)D3 and misclassification of vitamin D status. Sixty-three percent of maternal 25(OH)D plasma levels were less than the recommended level of 25(OH)D at 3 months. Additionally, breastmilk levels of 25(OH)D decreased from 60.1 nmol/L to 50.0 nmol/L between six weeks and three months (p &lt, 0.01). Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between mother and infant plasma levels (p &lt, 0.01, r = 0.56) at 3 months. Accordingly, 31% of the infants were categorized as vitamin D deficient (25(OH)D &lt, 50 nmol/L) compared to 25% if 3-Epi25(OH)D3 was not distinguished from 25(OH)D3. This study highlights the importance of accurate quantification of 25(OH)D. Monitoring vitamin D metabolites in infant, maternal plasma, and breastmilk may be needed to ensure adequate levels in both mother and infant in the first 6 months of infant life.

There is a growing interest in determining fatty acid reference intervals from pregnancy cohort, especially considering the lack of reference values for pregnant women in the literature and the generalized misconception of equating reference intervals for nonpregnant women as equivalent to pregnant women. Seafood and supplements are important dietary sources for the omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (&omega, 3 LCPUFA), such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5&omega, 3), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA, 22:55&omega, 3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6&omega, 3). Sufficient intake of EPA and DHA is vital during pregnancy for the development of the fetus, as well as for maintaining adequate levels for the mother. This study describes the fatty acid status and suggests reference values and cut-offs for fatty acids in red blood cells (RBC) from pregnant women (n = 247). An electronic food frequency questionnaire (e-FFQ) mapped the dietary habits of the participants, and gas chromatography was used to determine the fatty acid levels in RBC. The association between e-FFQ variables and fatty acid concentrations was established using a principal component analysis (PCA). Twenty-nine-point-one percent (29.1%) of the participants reported eating seafood as dinner according to the Norwegian recommendations, and they added in their diet as well a high percentage (76.9%) intake of &omega, 3 supplements. The concentration levels of fatty acids in RBC were in agreement with those reported in similar populations from different countries. The reference interval 2.5/97.5 percentiles for EPA, DPA, DHA were 0.23/2.12, 0.56/2.80, 3.76/10.12 in relative concentration units (%), and 5.99/51.25, 11.08/61.97, 64.25/218.08 in absolute concentration units (&micro, g/g), respectively. The number of participants and their selection from all over Norway vouch for the representativeness of the study and the validity of the proposed reference values, and therefore, the study may be a useful tool when studying associations between fatty acid status and health outcome in future studies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first PCA study reporting a direct association between &omega, 3 LCPUFA and intake of seafood and &omega, 3 supplements in a pregnancy cohort.

The triple burden of malnutrition is an incessant issue in low- and middle-income countries, and fish has the potential to mitigate this burden. In Ghana fish is a central part of the diet, but data on nutrients and contaminants in processed indigenous fish species, that are often eaten whole, are missing. Samples of smoked, dried or saltedEngraulis encrasicolus(European anchovy),Brachydeuterus auritus(bigeye grunt),Sardinella aurita(round sardinella),Selene dorsalis(African moonfish),Sierrathrissa leonensis(West African (WA) pygmy herring) andTilapia spp. (tilapia) were collected from five different regions in Ghana. Samples were analyzed for nutrients (crude protein, fat, fatty acids, several vitamins, minerals, and trace elements), microbiological quality (microbial loads of total colony counts,E.coli, coliforms, and Salmonella), and contaminants (PAH4 and heavy metals). Except for tilapia, the processed small fish species had the potential to significantly contribute to the nutrient intakes of vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids. High levels of iron, mercury and lead were detected in certain fish samples, which calls for further research and identification of anthropogenic sources along the value chains. The total cell counts in all samples were acceptable;Salmonellawas not detected in any sample andE.colionly in one sample. However, high numbers of coliform bacteria were found. PAH4 in smoked samples reached high concentrations up to 1,300 μg/kg, but in contrast salted tilapia samples had a range of PAH4 concentration of 1 μg/kg to 24 μg/kg. This endpoint oriented study provides data for the nutritional value of small processed fish as food in Ghana and also provides information about potential food safety hazards. Future research is needed to determine potential sources of contamination along the value chains in different regions, identify critical points, and develop applicable mitigation strategies to improve the quality and safety of processed small fish in Ghana.

Iodine deficiency during pregnancy and in the post‐partum period may lead to impaired child development. Our aim is to describe iodine status longitudinally in women from pregnancy until 18 months post‐partum. Furthermore, we explore whether iodine status is associated with dietary intake, iodine‐containing supplement use and breastfeeding status from pregnancy until 18 months post‐partum. We also assess the correlation between maternal iodine status 18 months post‐partum and child iodine status at 18 months of age. Iodine status was measured by urinary iodine concentration (UIC) during pregnancy (n = 1,004), 6 weeks post‐partum (n = 915), 6 months post‐partum (n = 849), 12 months post‐partum (n = 733) and 18 months post‐partum (n = 714). The toddlers' UIC was assessed at 18 months of age (n = 416). Demographic variables and dietary data (food frequency questionnaire) were collected during pregnancy, and dietary data and breastfeeding practices were collected at all time points post‐partum. We found that iodine status was insufficient in both pregnant and post‐partum women. The UIC was at its lowermost 6 weeks post‐partum and gradually improved with increasing time post‐partum. Intake of milk and use of iodine‐containing supplements significantly increased the odds of having a UIC above 100 μg/L. Neither the mothers' UIC, vegetarian practice, nor exclusion of milk and dairy products were associated with the toddlers UIC 18 months post‐partum. Women who exclude milk and dairy products from their diets and/or do not use iodine‐containing supplements may be at risk of iodine deficiency. The women possibly also have an increased risk of thyroid dysfunction and for conceiving children with nonoptimal developmental status. The Research Council of Norway (Grant 196156) and the Norwegian Seafood Research Fund, FHF (Grant 900842) supported the work.

Seafood plays a central role in global food and nutrition security. However, there is a lack of data on the concentration of nutrients and contaminants in fish and other seafood, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In order to assess the potential risks and benefits associated with seafood intake, reliable and up-to-date food composition data is crucial. The quality of food composition data is affected by several factors, such as sampling protocols and the suitability and quality of the methods applied for sample preparation and analysis. In this paper, we describe the sampling methodology and protocols related to the sampling of fish and other seafood and the corresponding analytical methods used to analyse the nutrient and contaminant content of such species. For nutrients, the determination of protein, fat, ash, energy, fatty acids, cholesterol, and amino acids is described, in addition to analyses for determination of the vitamin and mineral content in fish and other seafood. For contaminants, analyses for the determination of organic pollutants and microplastics are described. The methodology described in this paper is used for sampling data through scientific surveys in low- and middle-income countries with research vessel Dr. Fridtjof Nansen under the EAF-Nansen Programme. The Programme aims to improve knowledge on the nutritional composition of fish and ensure the fish is safe to consume.•In this paper, we describe the sampling protocols used for sampling fish and other seafood during scientific surveys under the EAF-Nansen Programme.•This paper describes the methodology and quality control for analysing nutrients and contaminants in fish and other seafood., Graphical abstract Image, graphical abstract

Background: The toxic effects of prenatal methylmercury (MeHg) include neurological abnormalities and developmental delay of which infants and children are particular susceptible. Studies on the effects of low and moderate exposure show conflicting results. Seafood is the main dietary source of MeHg, but also contributes with nutrients regarded as beneficial for development. Objectives: To measure the change in total hair mercury concentration (THHg) after an intervention of lunch meals with fatty fish or meat in Norwegian preschool children, and to examine the associations between THHg and cognitive function. Methods: Children (n = 232) 4–6 years old were randomized to lunch meals with fatty fish (n = 114) or meat (n = 118) three times a week for 16 weeks. THHg was determined using a Direct Mercury Analyzer, and cognitive function was assessed by the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Intelligence Scale-III (WPPSI-III) pre- and post-intervention. Linear mixed effect models were used to analyze changes in THHg and WPPSI-III scores. Results: The mean (SD) THHg pre-intervention was 0.373 (0.204) mg kg−1. Children in the fish group had an increase in THHg (change 0.162, 95% CI 0.111, 0.213 mg kg−1), whereas children in the meat group had decreased THHg (−0.053, 95% CI −0.103, −0.002 mg kg−1). There were no notable associations between THHg and the WPPSI-III raw scores at baseline or after 16 weeks of the fish/meat intervention. Conclusions: Lunch meals including fatty fish led to a significant increase in THHg, but the values remain below the point of departures used for risk assessment by the EFSA, WHO and US-EPA. We observed no associations between THHg and cognitive function. Keywords: Hair mercury, Methylmercury, Fish consumption, Cognitive development, Preschool children

Purpose. Iodine is an essential trace element necessary for thyroid hormone synthesis. Iodine deficiency is a continuing public health problem despite international efforts to eliminate it. Studies on iodine status in preschoolers are scarce. Thus, the aims of the current study were to determine the iodine status and to investigate possible associations between urinary iodine concentration (UIC) and estimated 24 h iodine extraction (UIE) and iodine-rich foods. Methods. Data are cross-sectional baseline data, obtained from the two-armed randomized controlled dietary trial “Fish Intervention Studies-KIDS” (FINS-KIDS) conducted in Bergen, Norway. UIC was determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry in spot urine samples. Inadequate UIC was defined as median

Aims: To describe the rationale, study design, population and dietary compliance in a randomized controlled trial (RCT) investigating the effect of fatty fish on cognitive performance and mental health in adolescents. Method: In the Fish Intervention Studies-TEENS (FINS-TEENS) study we individually randomized 478 adolescents (14–15-year-olds) from eight secondary schools in Norway to receive school meal lunches with fatty fish or meat or n-3 supplements three times a week for 12 weeks. Demographic factors, psychological tests and biological measures were collected pre-and post-intervention. Duplicate portions of lunch meals were collected and individual intake recorded throughout the study. Results: In total, 481 out of 785 adolescents (61%) agreed to participate and 34 (7%) dropped out. Breakfast consumption was the only group difference in background characteristics. Analyses of selected nutrients in the lunch meals showed higher levels of n-3 fatty acids, vitamin D and n-6 fatty acids in the fish compared to the meat meals. Dietary compliance (score 0–144) revealed that the intake in the Fish group (mean = 59, standard deviation (SD) = 35) were lower than in the Meat group (mean = 83, SD = 31, p < 0.01) and Supplement group (mean = 105, SD = 25, p < 0.01). Conclusions: The results show that it is possible to conduct a RCT with fatty fish in a school-based setting. The results also emphasize the importance of collecting detailed records of dietary compliance, as this information is important when interpreting and analysing the outcome of dietary interventions.

Purpose Essential fatty acids play a critical role in the growth and development of infants, but little is known about the fatty acid status of populations in low-income countries. The objective was to describe the fatty acid composition of red blood cells (RBC) in breastfeed Nepali infants and a subsample of their mothers and to identify the main sources of fatty acids in the mother’s diet, as well as the fatty acid composition of breast milk. Methods RBC fatty acid composition was analyzed in a random sample of 303 infants and 72 mother, along with 68 breastmilk samples. Fatty acid profiles of the most important dietary fat sources were analyzed. Information on mother’s diet and intake of fat was collected by three 24-h dietary recalls. Results In infant RBC’s, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) was the main n-3 fatty acid, and arachidonic acid (AA) was the major n-6 fatty acid. Total n-6 PUFA was three times higher than total n-3 PUFA. Height-for-age (HAZ) was positively associated with DHA status and AA status in multivariable models. The concentration of all fatty acids was higher in children, compared to mothers, except Total n-6 PUFA and Linoleic acid (LA) where no differences were found. The mother’s energy intake from fat was 13% and cooking oil (sesame, mustard, soybean or sunflower oil) contributed 52% of the fat intake. Conclusions RBC-DHA levels in both infants and mother was unexpected high taking into account few dietary DHA sources and the low DHA concentrations in breastmilk.

Objectives The aims of this study were to determine vitamin D status (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 [s-25(OH)D3]) and examine possible associations between vitamin D status and vitamin D–rich dietary sources, sun exposure, and body mass index in preschool children ages 4 to 6 y. Methods This is a cross-sectional study based on baseline data (collected in January-February 2015) from the two-armed randomized controlled trial Fish Intervention Studies-KIDS (FINS-KIDS) conducted in Bergen, Norway. S-25(OH)D3 concentration was determined by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Information regarding habitual dietary intake, recent sun vacations, and body mass index were assessed with questionnaires answered by the children's caregivers. Results The children (n = 212) had a mean (standard deviation) s-25(OH)D3 of 60.7 (13.8) nmol/L; 18.9% had s-25(OH)D3 ≤50 nmol/L. In logistic regression models, non-overweight versus overweight status was inversely associated with s-25(OH)D3 ≤50 nmol/L (odds ratio: 0.41; 95% confidence interval, 0.18–0.95; P = 0.037). Non-sun versus sun vacations were associated with s-25(OH)D3 ≤75 nmol/L (odds ratio: 5.33; 95% confidence interval, 1.93–14.77; P = 0.001). Conclusions The majority of the preschool children (81%) had s-25(OH)D3 >50 nmol/L. Children with overweight status had an increased risk of s-25(OH)D3 ≤50 nmol/L, and children who had not been on sun vacations were at a greater risk of s-25(OH)D3 ≤75 nmol/L.

Background: In most maternity wards in Norway, early discharge (

PurposeThe Little in Norway (LiN) project is a cross-disciplinary prospective longitudinal study starting in pregnancy. It was set up to investigate maternal and paternal mental health functioning in the transition to parenthood, detect pathways to healthy and aberrant child development and generate new knowledge about mechanisms underlying differential child mental health susceptibility.ParticipantsThe LiN cohort is a community-based sample comprising 1036 families (1036 mothers, 884 partners, 1017 children). All pregnant women and their partners receiving routine prenatal care at well-baby clinics at nine geographically selected sites across Norway were invited to participate. Enrolment took place from September 2011 to October 2012. This cohort profile comprises 10 data collection waves spanning from enrolment in pregnancy until child age 18 months.Findings to dateFour types of information have been collected: multi-informant questionnaire reports, direct observation of interaction, test data and biological samples. The most significant findings so far relate to three domains of results. First, when examining risk factors for parental mental health problems, results showed that the parents’ own adverse childhood experiences and attachment style were related to anxiety, depression and stress in the perinatal period. The perception of difficult child temperament was also found to contribute to parenting stress in the first year after birth. Second, we studied how parental mental health risk factors were related to later child development and social emotional functioning, for example, linking maternal symptoms to social-emotional outcomes and paternal symptoms to language outcomes. Third, we investigated the relation between maternal nutrition during pregnancy and aspects of early child development. Results showed that mild to moderate maternal iodine deficiency in pregnancy was associated with poorer language skills up to 18 months, but not with reduced cognitive or fine and gross motor skills.Future plansA data collection point at 36 months is completed and currently being analysed. A new data collection wave is planned when the children are 8 years of age.Trial registration numberISRCTN66710572.

Background Most foods, including seafood, undergo some sort of processing as an integrated part of the global food industry. The degree of processing depends on the type of product produced. Processed seafood products are an important part of the diet; thus, knowledge of nutrient content in seafood products is of great importance. Objective The aim of this study was to describe the content of selected nutrients in commercially available and market representative seafood products purchased from 3 different years. Methods Seafood products from 2015 (n = 16), 2017 (n = 35), and 2018 (n = 35) were analyzed as composite samples for macro- and micronutrients using accredited methods at the Institute of Marine Research in Norway. Results This study confirms that seafood products are good sources of several key nutrients, such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), vitamin D, vitamin B12, iodine, and selenium. Fatty fish products had the highest content of EPA, DHA, and vitamin D, while lean fish products had the highest content of vitamin B12 and minerals. However, some lean fish products, such as one portion of fish au gratin or fish cakes, also proved as good sources of EPA, DHA, and vitamin D, and contributed substantially to the recommended intake. Variations in nutrients were seen both within the same product category and between the same product category from different years. Conclusions These data give valuable insights into seafood products as a source of essential micronutrients and highlight the importance of these products for nutrition and health.

// Ingvild Eide Graff 1 , Jannike Oyen 1 , Marian Kjellevold 1 , Livar Froyland 1 , Clara Gram Gjesdal 2,3 , Bjorg Almas 4 , Grethe Rosenlund 5 and Oyvind Lie 1 1 National Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Research (NIFES), Bergen, Norway 2 Department of Rheumatology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway 3 Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway 4 Hormone Laboratory, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway 5 Skretting Aquaculture Research Centre, Stavanger, Norway Correspondence to: Jannike Oyen, email: // Keywords : Atlantic salmon, bone health, vitamin D, vitamin K, bone biomarkers, Gerotarget Received : March 09, 2016 Accepted : June 09, 2016 Published : August 14, 2016 Abstract Suboptimal vitamin D status is common among humans, and might increase bone resorption with subsequent negative effects on bone health. Fatty fish, including Atlantic salmon, is an important dietary vitamin D source. However, due to a considerable change in fish feed composition, the contribution of vitamin D from salmon fillet has been reduced. The main objective was to investigate if intake of vitamin D 3 enriched salmon or vitamin D 3 tablets decreased bone biomarkers (urinary N-telopeptides, deoxypyridinoline, serum bone-specific alkaline phosphatase, and osteocalcin) compared to a low vitamin D 3 intake. The 122 healthy postmenopausal women included in this 12 weeks intervention trial were randomized into four groups: three salmon groups (150 grams/two times/week) and one tablet group (800 IU vitamin D and 1000 mg calcium/day). The salmon groups also received calcium supplements. The salmon had three different vitamin D 3 /vitamin K 1 combinations: high D 3 +high K 1 , low D 3 +high K 1 , or high D 3 +low K 1 . Increased intake of salmon containing high levels of vitamin D 3 (0.35-0.38 mg/kg/fillet) and supplements with the same weekly contribution had a positive influence on bone health as measured by bone biomarkers in postmenopausal women. Consequently, an increased level of vitamin D 3 at least to original level in feed for salmonids will contribute to an improved vitamin D 3 status and may improve human bone health.

Background: Inadequate iodine intake has been identified in several population groups in the Nordic countries over the past years; however, studies of iodine status in infants and toddlers are scarce. Objective: The aim of this study is to evaluate the iodine status and dietary iodine sources among 18-monthold toddlers from Norway. Methods: Cross-sectional and country representative data from the Little in Norway study were used. All children who had given a spot urine sample at 18 months age were included (n = 416). Urinary iodine concentration (UIC) was determined by inductively coupled plasma mass-spectrometry. Dietary habits and supplement use were measured by a food frequency questionnaire. Results: Median (25th–75th percentiles [p25–p75]) UIC was 129 (81–190) μg/L while estimated median (p25– p75) habitual iodine intake was 109 (101–117) μg/day. None of the children were below the estimated average requirement (EAR) of 65 μg/day or above the upper intake level of 180 μg/day. There were no differences in either UIC or estimated habitual iodine intake between different geographic areas in Norway. Milk was the most important iodine source, contributing an estimated 70% to the total iodine intake, while other foods rich in iodine such as seafood and enriched baby porridge contributed about 30%. Conclusions: The iodine status among 18-month-old toddlers from different geographic areas in Norway was sufficient, indicated by a median UIC above the WHO cutoff of 100 μg/L. This was further supported by the estimated habitual iodine intake, where none of the participants were below the EAR. Milk was an important iodine source in this age group; thus children with a low intake might be at risk of insufficient iodine intake.

Background Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) especially docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) are crucial for normal brain development in utero and in early infancy. Data on fatty acid status and cognitive development in infants and children from low-income countries are scarce. Methods We examined the association between the DHA and AA status in infancy (n = 320) and developmental status and cognitive functioning five years later. At five years of age, we measured development by the Ages and Stages Questionnaire 3rd. ed. (ASQ-3) and cognitive functioning by subtests from the neuropsychological test battery NEPSY II. In addition, infant fatty acid composition in red blood cells (RBC) was analyzed. In multiple linear and logistic regression models, we estimated the associations between DHA and AA status in infancy and scores on the ASQ-3 and the NEPSY II subtests. Results There were no notable associations between infant AA and DHA status, and the scores on the ASQ-3 and the NEPSY II subtests five years later. It should be noted that we found better than expected concentrations of erythrocyte DHA and AA among the infants, and the ASQ scores were left-skewed, which limited the ability to identify associations. Conclusion DHA and AA status in infancy is seemingly not related to neurodevelopment measured 5 years later in this peri-urban population from Nepal.

Long chain polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids (LC-PUFA) are of functional and structural importance for brain development. Observational studies have shown positive relations between fatty fish consumption and cognitive performance in children, but Results from intervention studies using supplementary n-3 LC-PUFA are conflicting. Salmon is a good source of n-3 LC-PUFA, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). We tested the hypothesis that an increased dietary salmon intake results in better cognitive outcomes than a meat based diet.Children (n = 205, age 4-6 years) in this trial were individually randomized to eating meals containing farmed Atlantic salmon or meat three times weekly for 16 weeks. Pre- and post-intervention a cognitive test (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, 3rd edition, WPPSI-III) and a fine-motor coordination test (Nine Hole Peg Test, 9-HPT) were performed. Biochemical analyses included glycerophospholipid fatty acid profiles in plasma and cheek cells, serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, and urinary iodine concentration. Dietary intake before and during the study were determined using food frequency questionnaires.Intakes of EPA, DHA, vitamin D and iodine were higher in the salmon than the meat group, but on biomarker level only EPA and DHA increased significantly in the salmon group compared to the meat group (p 0.001). In general linear models no significant differences between the intervention groups were found in the scale scores of the WPPSI-III tests and the 9-HPT. In analyses of the raw scores, the salmon group showed significantly better improvement in two of the eight raw scores compared to the meat group (symbol search p = 0.038, picture concepts p = 0.047).Intake of farmed Atlantic salmon led to a greater increase of the raw scores of the picture concept and symbol search subtests, while in the six other subtests raw scores were not different between the groups. This might indicate a modest positive association of salmon intake with the performance of preschool children in some subtests evaluating fluid intelligence but does not suggest an influence on global IQ development.ClinicalTrials.gov registration number: NCT01951937.

OBJECTIVES: Marine ω-3 fatty acids (FAs) and Vitamin D (VitD) are reportedly capable of down-regulating inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and periodontal disease. This study was undertaken to relate marine FA and VitD status to RA disease status and periodontal conditions.METHODS: RA outpatients (age ≥35 y) were consecutively recruited. Rheumatologic clinical data were collected and periodontal status obtained. A food frequency questionnaire was used to estimate fish and supplement intake. FA profiles in whole-blood and serum VitD levels were determined.RESULTS: A total of 78 RA patients (age 57 ± 12 y, disease duration 15 ± 11 y) were included, 58% had active RA. Periodontitis was diagnosed in 82% of the patients, 18% had severe periodontitis. Seropositivity for rheumatoid factor and/or anticitrullinated protein antibodies was related to higher prevalence of periodontitis (P= 0.008). Seafood intake in accordance with nutritional recommendations was associated with better RA disease outcome (largest P= 0.008). An ω-3 index >8, present in 14% of the patients, correlated with a more desirable patient global health assessment scored on a visual analog scale (VAS; P= 0.004), lower periodontal probing depth (PD; P= 0.021), and ω-3 supplementation (P= 0.001). Serum VitD levels >50 nmol/L were found in 89%, of these 48% had VitD levels ≥75 nmol/L, no differences were found for RA disease activity and periodontal measurements.CONCLUSIONS: Seropositive RA patients had a higher prevalence of periodontitis than seronegative patients. An ω-3 index >8 was related to ω-3 supplementation and more desirable VAS and lower PD. VitD status was satisfactory for most patients and was not associated with differences in RA severity or periodontal diagnosis.

Mental health and sleep problems are prevalent in children during preschool years. The aim of the current study was to investigate if increased intake of fatty fish compared with meat improves mental health and sleep in four- to six-year-old children. The children (n = 232) in the two-armed randomized controlled trial, Fish Intervention Studies-KIDS (FINS-KIDS), were randomly assigned to lunch meals with fatty fish (herring/mackerel) or meat (chicken/lamb/beef) three times a week for 16 weeks. The fish and meat were weighed before and after the meals to record the exact consumption in grams (dietary compliance). Mental health problems were assessed by the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) and sleep by parent report pre- and post-intervention. There was no significant statistical difference between changes in mental health and sleep for the fish eating group compared with the meat eating group, neither in the crude analysis nor after adjusting for intake of fish or meat (dietary compliance). publishedVersion

Background Marine resources including fatty fish are important sources of n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFAs), which are important for brain development. To our knowledge, this is the first randomized controlled trial (RCT) investigating the impact of fatty fish on cognition in preschool children. The purpose of the trial was to investigate whether an increased intake of fatty fish compared to meat improves cognitive function in children 4–6 years old. Methods The children (n = 232) in this two-armed RCT, Fish Intervention Studies-KIDS (FINS-KIDS) were recruited from 13 kindergartens in Bergen, Norway. They were randomly assigned to lunch meals with fatty fish (herring/mackerel) or meat (chicken/lamb/beef) three times a week for 16 weeks. The fish and meat were weighed before and after the meals to record the exact consumption (dietary compliance). The primary outcome was cognitive function measured by the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, 3rd edition (WPPSI-III) and fine-motor coordination measured by the 9-Hole Peg Test (9-HPT) at pre- and post-intervention. Biological samples (blood, urine, hair), and questionnaires to the caregivers were included at both time points. Linear mixed effect models with a random intercept for kindergarten were used to analyze changes from pre- to post-intervention in the primary outcome variables. Results There were 218 children included in the trial (105 in the fish, and 113 in the meat group). The children consumed a mean (standard deviation) of 2070 (978) g fish or 2675 (850) g meat from the study meals (p < 0.0001). The fish group had a significant increase of red blood cell n-3 LC-PUFAs. The intervention had no effect on the WPPSI-III scores (mean change total raw score; fish group 17.7, 95% confidence interval (CI) 14.8–20.7 vs meat group 17.8, 95% CI 15.0–20.6, p = 0.97) in the main analyses. In the sub-analyses, adjusting for dietary compliance, the fish group showed a higher improvement on total raw score (20.4, 95% CI 17.5–23.3) compared to the meat group (15.2, 95% CI 12.4–18.0, p = 0.0060); docosahexaenoic acid mediated this effect. Conclusions There was no beneficial effect of fatty fish compared to meat on cognitive functioning in the preschool children. When considering dietary compliance, we found a beneficial effect of fatty fish on cognitive scores. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02331667 December 17, 2014. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12916-018-1020-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Iodine sufficiency is particularly important in pregnancy, where median urinary iodine concentration (UIC) in the range of 150–250 µg/L indicates adequate iodine status. The aims of this study were to determine UIC and assess if dietary and maternal characteristics influence the iodine status in pregnant Norwegian women. The study comprises a cross-sectional population-based prospective cohort of pregnant women (Little in Norway (LiN)). Median UIC in 954 urine samples was 85 µg/L and 78.4% of the samples (n = 748) were ≤150 µg/L. 23.2% (n = 221) of the samples were ≤50 µg/L and 5.2% (n = 50) were above the requirements of iodine intake (>250 µg/L). Frequent iodine-supplement users (n = 144) had significantly higher UIC (120 µg/L) than non-frequent users (75 µg/L). Frequent milk and dairy product consumers (4–9 portions/day) had significantly higher UIC (99 µg/L) than women consuming 0–1 portion/day (57 µg/L) or 2–3 portions/day (83 µg/L). Women living in mid-Norway (n = 255) had lowest UIC (72 µg/L). In conclusion, this study shows that the diet of the pregnant women did not necessarily secure a sufficient iodine intake. There is an urgent need for public health strategies to secure adequate iodine nutrition among pregnant women in Norway.

Background: Adolescence involves changes in dietary habits that may induce imbalances in the intake of different nutrients. Fish is an important dietary source of omega-3 (n-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs), vitamin D, several minerals and high-quality protein. By using secondary outcomes and exploratory analyses, the aims of this paper were to evaluate if nutritional biomarkers (red blood cell fatty acids, serum (s)-25(OH)D, s-ferritin and urinary iodine concentration (UIC)) were altered during a dietary intervention, and if they mediated previously reported changes in attention performance. In addition, to examine the status of the biomarkers and explore associations between dietary pattern, biomarkers and attention performance cross-sectionally at baseline. Methods: The Fish Intervention Studies-TEENS (FINS-TEENS) was a three-armed intervention trial, including adolescents from eight secondary schools (n = 415; age: 14–15y) in Bergen, Norway. Participants were individually randomized to receive either fish meals, meat meals or n-3 LCPUFA supplements, three times a week for a total of 12 weeks. Blood and urine samples were collected pre and post intervention and attention performance was assessed with the d2 test of attention. Analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) assessed differences between groups in changes of biomarkers and linear mixed models were applied in analyses of attention performance and biomarkers. The trial is registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02350322). Results: At baseline, the mean omega-3 index was 5.8 ± 1.3% and deficient status were identified for s-25(OH)D (54%), s-ferritin (10%) and UIC (40%). The intervention resulted in an increase in DHA and the omega-3 index which was larger in the supplement group compared to the fish and meat group (P < 0.01), and in the fish group compared to the meat group (P < 0.01). No differences between the groups were observed for changes in 25(OH)D, s-ferritin or UIC. None of the biomarkers mediated performance in the d2 test. The intake of fatty fish and a healthy dietary pattern was associated with scores in processing speed at baseline. Conclusions: These results show that Norwegian adolescents have insufficient status of important nutrients, which may be improved with fatty fish consumption or n-3 LCPUFA supplements. However, nutritional status was not associated with scores in the d2 test of attention. publishedVersion

Inadequate iodine status affects the synthesis of the thyroid hormones and may impair brain development in fetal life. The aim of this study was to explore the association between maternal iodine status in pregnancy measured by urinary iodine concentration (UIC) and child neurodevelopment at age 6, 12 and 18 months in a population-based cohort. In total, 1036 families from nine locations in Norway were enrolled in the little in Norway cohort. The present study includes n = 851 mother-child pairs with singleton pregnancies, no use of thyroid medication in pregnancy, no severe genetic disorder, data on exposure (UIC) in pregnancy and developmental outcomes (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, third edition). Data collection also included general information from questionnaires. We examined associations between UIC (and use of iodine-containing supplements) and repeated measures of developmental outcomes using multivariable mixed models. The median UIC in pregnancy was 78 &micro, g/L (IQR 46&ndash, 130), classified as insufficient iodine intake according to the WHO. Eighteen percent reported use of iodine-containing multisupplements. A UIC below ~100 was associated with reduced receptive (p = 0.025) and expressive language skills (p = 0.002), but not with reduced cognitive or fine- and gross motor skills. Maternal use of iodine-containing supplements was associated with lower gross motor skills (b = &minus, 0.18, 95% CI = &minus, 0.33, &minus, 0.03, p = 0.02), but not with the other outcome measures. In conclusion, an insufficient iodine intake in pregnancy, reflected in a UIC below ~100 &micro, g/L, was associated with lower infant language skills up to 18 months. The use of iodine-containing supplements was not associated with beneficial effects.

Iodine is a trace element required for the production of thyroid hormones, essential for metabolism, growth and brain development, particularly in the first trimester of pregnancy. Milk and lean fish are the main dietary sources of iodine in the Norwegian diet. Thus, the aim of the present study was to provide updated analysed values of iodine concentration in six fish species, 27 selected Norwegian iodine-rich dairy foods and Norwegian hen’s eggs. The iodine concentrations in the wild fish species varied between 18 μg/100 g (Atlantic halibut) and 1,210 μg/100 g (pollack). The iodine concentration of cow milk varied between 12 and 19 μg/100 g and the iodine concentration of the eggs varied between 23 and 43 μg/100 g. The results in this study deviate somewhat from the current iodine concentrations in the Norwegian Food Composition Table. This deviation may have a large impact on the assessment of the iodine intake. Hence, updated knowledge about the variation in iodine level of fish, milk, dairy products and hen’s egg are of great importance when estimating the iodine intake in the population. These data will contribute substantially to future estimations of dietary iodine intake and will be made available for the public Norwegian Food Composition Table.

Poor water quality has been reported along with a variety of negative health outcomes in the Saharawi refugee camps in Algeria. We assessed the concentration of elements in drinking water and urine in refugee women and children. Twenty-four samples of distributed public drinking water were collected, along with urine samples from 77 women and 296 children. Using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, we analyzed water and urine for 31 and 10 elements, respectively. In addition, the water samples were analyzed for five anions by ion-exchange chromatography. Data were described according to two areas: zone 1 with purified water and water with naturally better quality, and zone 2 with only partially purified water. Most elements in drinking water had significantly higher concentration in zone 2 compared with zone 1. Sodium, chloride, nitrite, and nitrate were the parameters that exceeded the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Among both women and children, urinary concentration of vanadium, arsenic, selenium, lead, iodine, and uranium exceeded reference values, and most of the elements were significantly higher in zone 2 compared to zone 1. Even though water purification in the Saharawi refugee camps has increased during the last years, some elements are still exceeding the WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. Moreover, urinary exposure of some elements exceeded reference values from the literature. Further effort should be made to improve the water quality among the Saharawi refugees.

Iodine is a key component of thyroid hormones that are critical for normal development of the brain and nervous system in utero. Recent results indicate that two thirds of pregnant women in Europe have sub-optimal iodine nutrition. In Norway, milk and seafood are the most important dietary iodine sources and contributes to about 80% of the intake. Two-armed randomized trial where 137 pregnant women were randomized to either receiving cod twice weekly, or continue with habitual diet for 16 weeks (pregnancy week 20–36). Socioeconomic- and demographic factors, dietary information and biological (urine, blood, and hair) samples are collected pre- and post-intervention, and at six weeks, three-, six-, and eleven months postpartum. Biological samples (urine, blood, and hair) of the infant are collected at six weeks, three-, six-, and eleven months postnatal. Child development is assessed by The Bayley Scale of Infant and Toddler Development, 3rd edition, at eleven months, and by parent report on the Ages and Stages Questionnaire, 3rd edition, and Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social Emotional at three-, six-, and eleven months. The Mommy’s Food study will provide knowledge on changes in iodine nutrition when consuming iodine rich fish during pregnancy and contribute to the understanding of the impact of iodine status in pregnancy on infant neurodevelopment. This study is registered in ClinicalTrials.gov ( NCT02610959 ). Registered November 17, 2015.

Depression has been linked to an imbalance in cortisol. Until recently, cortisol has been studied by measuring concentrations at single time points in blood or saliva samples. Cortisol concentrations vary with circadian rhythm and experiences, from time point to time point. The measurement of hair cortisol concentration (HCC) is a new method of accessing mean, long-term cortisol concentrations. Recent studies show positive associations between depression and HCC, and prenatal maternal cortisol is thought to influence the developing fetus. We therefore examined the association between HCC and self-reported symptoms of depression in second trimester pregnant women. Participants were 181 women, recruited between September 2011 and October 2013 to the Little-in-Norway (LiN)-study. These women answered the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Rating Scale (EPDS) on self-reported symptoms of depression, and one cm maternal scalp hair was collected and analyzed for cortisol concentrations. Multiple regression analyses did not show depressive symptoms as a predictor for HCC in our selection of pregnant women, while gestational age was significantly related. In conclusion, our study indicated that symptoms of depression during pregnancy did not predict HCC, but further studies of clinically depressed, pregnant women using gestational age as an adjustment variable are warranted.

Assessment of adolescents’ dietary habits is challenging. Reliable instruments to monitor dietary trends are required to promote healthier behaviours in this group. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to assess adolescents’ adherence to Norwegian dietary recommendations with a diet score and to report results from, and test-retest reliability of, the score. The diet score involved seven food groups and one physical activity indicator, and was applied to answers from a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) administered twice. Reproducibility of the score was assessed with Cohen’s Kappa (κ statistics) at an interval of three months. The setting was eight lower-secondary schools in Hordaland County, Norway, and subjects were adolescents (n = 472) aged 14–15 years and their caregivers. Results showed that the proportion of adolescents consistently classified by the diet score was 87.6% (κ = 0.465). For food groups, proportions ranged from 74.0% to 91.6% (κ = 0.249 to κ = 0.573). Less than 40% of the participants were found to adhere to recommendations for frequencies of eating fruits, vegetables, added sugar, and fish. Highest compliance to recommendations was seen for choosing water as beverage and limit the intake of red meat. The score was associated with parental socioeconomic status. The diet score was found to be reproducible at an acceptable level. Health promoting work targeting adolescents should emphasize to increase the intake of recommended foods to approach nutritional guidelines.

An observational study was conducted to determine dietary fluoride intake, diet, and prevalence of dental and skeletal fluorosis of school age children in three fluorosis endemic districts of the Ethiopian Rift Valley having similar concentrations of fluoride (F) in drinking water (~5 mg F/L). The duplicate plate method was used to collect foods consumed by children over 24 h from 20 households in each community (n = 60) and the foods, along with water and beverages, were analyzed for fluoride (F) content. Prevalence of dental and skeletal fluorosis was determined using presence of clinical symptoms in children (n = 220). Daily dietary fluoride intake was at or above tolerable upper intake level (UL) of 10 mg F/day and the dietary sources (water, prepared food and beverages) all contributed to the daily fluoride burden. Urinary fluoride in children from Fentale and Adamitulu was almost twice (>5 mg/L) the concentration found in urine from children from Alaba, where rain water harvesting was most common. Severe and moderate dental fluorosis was found in Alaba and Adamitulu, the highest severity and prevalence being in the latter district where staple foods were lowest in calcium. Children in all three areas showed evidence of both skeletal and non-skeletal fluorosis. Our data support the hypothesis that intake of calcium rich foods in addition to using rain water for household consumption and preparation of food, may help in reducing risk of fluorosis in Ethiopia, but prospective studies are needed.

Adequate iodine concentration in breastmilk (BMIC) is essential for optimal neonatal thyroid hormone synthesis and neurological development in breastfed infants. For many decades, iodine deficiency has been a public health problem in Nepal. However, recently, excessive iodine intakes among Nepali infants have been reported. This study aimed to measure BMIC and urinary iodine concentration (UIC) among lactating women in a peri-urban area of Nepal. Iodine concentration was measured in spot urine (n = 485) and breastmilk samples (n = 291) of 500 randomly selected lactating women. The median (p25, p75) BMIC and median UIC were 250 (130, 370) µg/L and 230 (135–377) µg/L, respectively. Around 82% had BMIC > 100 µg/L, 61% had BMIC > 200 µg/L and 81% had UIC > 100 µg/L, 37% had >300 µg/L and 20% had >500 µg/L. In multiple linear regression models, time since birth (β 3.0, 95% CI (0.2, 5.0)) and UIC (β 1.0, 95% CI (0.1, 2.0)) were associated with BMIC, explaining 26% of the variance. A large proportion of the women had adequate BMIC and UIC; however, a subset had high iodine concentrations. These findings emphasize the importance of carefully monitoring iodine intake to minimize the risk of iodine excess and subsequently preventing transient iodine-induced hypothyroidism in breastfed infants. publishedVersion

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6, n-3) is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid necessary for normal brain growth and cognitive development. Seafood and dietary supplements are the primary dietary sources of DHA. This study addresses the associations between DHA status in pregnant women and healthy, term-born infant problem-solving skills assessed using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire. The fatty acid status of maternal red blood cells (RBCs) was assessed in the 28th week of gestation and at three months postpartum. The infants’ fatty acid status (RBC) was assessed at three, six, and twelve months, and problem-solving skills were assessed at six and twelve months. Maternal DHA status in pregnancy was found to be positively associated with infants’ problem-solving skills at 12 months. This association remained significant even after controlling for the level of maternal education, a surrogate for socio-economic status. The infants’ DHA status at three months was associated with the infants’ problem solving at 12 months. The results accentuate the importance for pregnant and lactating women to have a satisfactory DHA status from dietary intake of seafood or other sources rich in DHA.

There is a growing body of evidence linking fish consumption and n-3 LCPUFAs to mental health. Still, the results from randomized trials with n-3 LCPUFAs show conflicting results, and it is possible that the combined effect of several nutrients in fish may explain the observed associations. To aim of the present study was to investigate if school meals with fatty fish three times per week for 12 weeks could alter mental health in a sample of typically developing adolescents. In the Fish Intervention Studies-TEENS (FINS-TEENS), adolescents from eight secondary schools (n=425) in Norway, were randomized to receive school meals with fatty fish, meat or n-3 LCPUFA supplements. Mental health was assessed with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and the differences between the groups were assessed with linear mixed effect models, unadjusted and adjusted for baseline and dietary compliance. The results showed no effects of school meals with fatty fish compared to similar meals with meat or n-3 LCPUFAs on the adolescents’ self-reported symptom scores for mental health. Among adolescents scoring above the SDQ cut-offs (high-scorers), the fish- improved less than the meat group in the self-reported symptom scores for total difficulties- and emotional problems. However, the findings should be regarded as preliminary, as the analyses for the high-scorer group were underpowered. In conclusion, serving school meals with fatty fish did not alter mental health in a typically developing sample of adolescents. It is possible that serving healthy school meals with meat is more beneficial than similar meals with fatty fish in adolescents scoring high on mental health problems. However, the results should be seen as preliminary, as the dietary compliance in the fish group was low and the analyses in the high score group underpowered. Thus, further studies should investigate the associations between fish consumption and adolescents’ mental health.