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Background The Asian bush mosquito Aedes japonicus is invading Europe and was first discovered in Lelystad, the Netherlands in 2013, where it has established a permanent population. In this study, we investigated the vector competence of Ae. japonicus from the Netherlands for the emerging Zika virus (ZIKV) and zoonotic Usutu virus (USUV). ZIKV causes severe congenital microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome in humans. USUV is closely related to West Nile virus, has recently spread throughout Europe and is causing mass mortality of birds. USUV infection in humans can result in clinical manifestations ranging from mild disease to severe neurological impairments. Methodology/Principal findings In our study, field-collected Ae. japonicus females received an infectious blood meal with ZIKV or USUV by droplet feeding. After 14 days at 28°C, 3% of the ZIKV-blood fed mosquitoes and 13% of the USUV-blood fed mosquitoes showed virus-positive saliva, indicating that Ae. japonicus can transmit both viruses. To investigate the effect of the mosquito midgut barrier on virus transmission, female mosquitoes were intrathoracically injected with ZIKV or USUV. Of the injected mosquitoes, 96% (ZIKV) and 88% (USUV) showed virus-positive saliva after 14 days at 28°C. This indicates that ZIKV and USUV can efficiently replicate in Ae. japonicus but that a strong midgut barrier is normally restricting virus dissemination. Small RNA deep sequencing of orally infected mosquitoes confirmed active replication of ZIKV and USUV, as demonstrated by potent small interfering RNA responses against both viruses. Additionally, de novo small RNA assembly revealed the presence of a novel narnavirus in Ae. japonicus. Conclusions/Significance Given that Ae. japonicus can experimentally transmit arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) like ZIKV and USUV and is currently expanding its territories, we should consider this mosquito as a potential vector for arboviral diseases in Europe., Author summary Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) cause a high disease burden in humans and animals. Zika virus (ZIKV) causes microcephaly and Guillain-Barré syndrome in humans, whereas Usutu virus (USUV) induces high mortality in birds and neurological disease in humans. The spread of arboviruses such as ZIKV and USUV is determined by the presence of mosquitoes that can transmit these viruses from one vertebrate host to the next. Here, we investigate the risk of transmission of ZIKV and USUV by the Asian bush mosquito Aedes japonicus. This mosquito is invading Europe and is currently present in the Netherlands. We found that field-collected Ae. japonicus mosquitoes can experimentally transmit ZIKV and USUV. Of the orally infected mosquitoes, 3% (ZIKV) and 13% (USUV) showed virus-positive saliva after 14 days at 28°C. We also found that ZIKV and USUV activated the antiviral RNA interference immune response of Ae. japonicus. Moreover, a strong barrier in the mosquito midgut restricted virus dissemination, since 96% (ZIKV) and 88% (USUV) of the mosquitoes injected with ZIKV or USUV showed virus-positive saliva. Additionally, we discovered a narnavirus in Ae. japonicus. Given that Ae. japonicus can transmit ZIKV and USUV, we should consider this mosquito as a potential vector for arboviral diseases in Europe.

The cotton leafworm Spodoptera litura is a polyphagous insect. It has recently made a comeback as a primary insect pest of cotton in Pakistan due to reductions in pesticide use on the advent of genetically modified cotton, resistant to Helicoverpa armigera. Spodoptera litura nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpltNPV) infects S. litura and is recognized as a potential candidate to control this insect. Twenty-two NPV isolates were collected from S. litura from different agro-ecological zones (with collection sites up to 600 km apart) and cropping systems in Pakistan to see whether there is spatial dispersal and adaptation of the virus and/or adaptation to crops. Therefore, the genetic make-up and biological activity of these isolates was measured. Among the SpltNPV isolates tested for speed of kill in 3rd instar larvae of S. litura, TAX1, SFD1, SFD2 and GRW1 were significantly faster killing isolates than other Pakistani isolates. Restriction fragment length analysis of the DNA showed that the Pakistan SpltNPV isolates are all variants of a single SpltNPV biotype. The isolates could be grouped into three genogroups (A–C). The speed of kill of genogroup A viruses was higher than in group C according to a Cox’ proportional hazards analysis. Sequence analysis showed that the Pakistan SpltNPV isolates are more closely related to each other than to the SpltNPV type species G2 (Pang et al., 2001). This suggests a single introduction of SpltNPV into Pakistan. The SpltNPV-PAK isolates are distinct from Spodoptera littoralis nucleopolyhedrovirus. There was a strong correlation between geographic spread and the genetic variation of SpltNPV, and a marginally significant correlation between the latter and the cropping system. The faster killing isolates may be good candidates for biological control of S. litura in Pakistan.

Background Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a re-emerging arthropod-borne (arbo)virus that causes chikungunya fever in humans and is predominantly transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. The CHIKV replication machinery consists of four non-structural proteins (nsP1-4) that additionally require the presence of a number of host proteins for replication of the viral RNA. NsP3 is essential for CHIKV replication and has a conserved macro, central and C-terminal hypervariable domain (HVD). The HVD is intrinsically disordered and interacts with various host proteins via conserved short peptide motifs: A proline-rich (P-rich) motif that has affinity for SH3-domain containing proteins and duplicate FGDF motifs with affinity for G3BP and its mosquito homologue Rasputin. The importance of these motifs for infection of mammalian cells has previously been implicated. However, their role during CHIKV infection of mosquito cells and transmission by mosquitoes remains unclear. Methodology / Principal findings Here, we show that in-frame deletion of the P-rich motif is lethal for CHIKV replication in both mosquito and mammalian cells. However, while mutagenesis of the P-rich motif negatively affects replication both in mammalian and mosquito cells, it did not compromise the infection and transmission of CHIKV by Ae. aegypti mosquitoes. Mutagenesis of both FGDF motifs together completely inactivated CHIKV replication in both mammalian and mosquito cells. Importantly, mutation of a single FGDF motif attenuated CHIKV replication in mammalian cells, while replication in mosquito cells was similar to wild type. Surprisingly, CHIKV mutants containing only a single FGDF motif were efficiently transmitted by Ae. aegypti. Conclusions / Significance The P-rich motif in CHIKV nsP3 is dispensable for transmission by mosquitoes. A single FGDF motif is sufficient for infection and dissemination in mosquitoes, but duplicate FGDF motifs are required for the efficient infection from the mosquito saliva to a vertebrate host. These results contribute to understanding the dynamics of the alphavirus transmission cycle and may help the development of arboviral intervention strategies., Author summary Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a re-emerging arthropod-borne virus that is transmitted predominantly by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. In 2016 alone CHIKV caused over 100.000 infections in South-America, exemplifying the impact of CHIKV disease. Previous research has suggested that the CHIKV non-structural protein 3 (nsP3) may determine the infection of mosquitoes. NsP3 is known to interact with several host proteins through a conserved proline (P)-rich and duplicate FGDF motifs that are present in its C-terminal domain. Here we investigated the importance of these conserved motifs for the infection and replication of CHIKV in both Aedes mosquito cells and mammalian cells. Furthermore, we assessed the role of these motifs for the transmission by Ae. aegypti mosquitoes via infectious bloodmeal experiments. We show that mutation of the P-rich motif negatively affects the replication of CHIKV in both mammalian and mosquito cells. In contrast, mutating the P-rich motif did not affect the transmission by Ae. aegypti. Mutation of both FGDF motifs together completely inactivated CHIKV in mammalian and mosquito cells, while mutation of a single FGDF motif negatively affected replication only in mammalian cells. Importantly, CHIKV containing only a single FGDF motif was still efficiently transmitted by Ae. aegypti mosquitoes. These results contribute to understanding the key interactions between alphaviruses and their mosquito vector.