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Mapping free energy landscapes of complex multi-funneled metamorphic proteins and weakly-funneled intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) remains challenging. While rare-event sampling molecular dynamics simulations can be useful, they often need to either impose restraints or reweigh the generated data to match experiments. Here, we present a parallel-tempering method that takes advantage of accelerated water dynamics and allows efficient and accurate conformational sampling across a wide variety of proteins. We demonstrate the improved sampling efficiency by benchmarking against standard model systems such as alanine di-peptide, TRP-cage and β-hairpin. The method successfully scales to large metamorphic proteins such as RFA-H and to highly disordered IDPs such as Histatin-5. Across the diverse proteins, the calculated ensemble averages match well with the NMR, SAXS and other biophysical experiments without the need to reweigh. By allowing accurate sampling across different landscapes, the method opens doors for sampling free energy landscape of complex uncharted proteins., Mapping free energy landscapes of complex multi-funneled metamorphic proteins and weakly-funneled intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) remains challenging. Here authors present a parallel-tempering method that takes advantage of accelerated water dynamics for efficient and accurate conformational sampling across a wide variety of proteins.

HIV-1 protease variants resist drugs by active and non-active-site mutations. The active-site mutations, which are the primary or first set of mutations, hamper the stability of the enzyme and resist the drugs minimally. As a result, secondary mutations that not only increase protein stability for unhindered catalytic activity but also resist drugs very effectively arise. While the mechanism of drug resistance of the active-site mutations is through modulating the active-site pocket volume, the mechanism of drug resistance of the non-active-site mutations is unclear. Moreover, how these allosteric mutations, which are 8-21 Å distant, communicate to the active site for drug efflux is completely unexplored. Results from molecular dynamics simulations suggest that the primary mechanism of drug resistance of the secondary mutations involves opening of the flexible protease flaps. Results from both residue- and community-based network analyses reveal that this precise action of protease is accomplished by the presence of robust communication paths between the mutational sites and the functionally relevant regions: active site and flaps. While the communication is more direct in the wild type, it traverses across multiple intermediate residues in mutants, leading to weak signaling and unregulated motions of flaps. The global integrity of the protease network is, however, maintained through the neighboring residues, which exhibit high degrees of conservation, consistent with clinical data and mutagenesis studies.

Human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) protease is an important drug target for acquired immune deficiency syndrome therapy. Nearly 10 small molecule drugs have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, prolonged use of these drugs produced protease mutants that are not susceptible to many of these drugs. The mutated proteases, however, continue to cleave the substrate peptides and thus remain largely functional. This poses a major challenge for the treatment strategies. Thus, it has become imperative to understand how these mutations induce drug resistance while maintaining the enzymatic activity of this protein. Here, we perform a comprehensive study of the wild type (WT) and clinically relevant mutated protease bound to a series of FDA-approved drugs and substrates of varying sequences to unravel the mechanism of unhindered activity of the drug-resistant protease variants. Our results from large molecular dynamics simulations suggest that while binding of the substrate to WT and protease mutants involves multiple H-bonding interactions between substrate subsites and the protease's main chain atoms, the drug binds primarily through the hydrophobic interactions with the side chains of protease's active site and flap residues. This implies that any side chain variations caused by mutations in protease could greatly modulate the binding affinity of inhibitors, but not of the substrates. The significantly weaker free energy of binding of the drugs could also be attributed to the limited number of interaction subsites present in the inhibitor structures compared to the substrates. These findings in combination with the identified protease flap and active site residues that contribute to ligand recognition and strong binding can help in the design of future resistance-evading HIV-1 protease inhibitors.