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IntroductionAntibiotic misuse is widespread and contributes to antibiotic resistance, especially in less regulated health systems such as India. Although informal providers are involved with substantial segments of primary healthcare, their level of knowledge, attitudes, and practices is not well documented in the literature.ObjectivesThis quantitative study systematically examines the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of informal and formal providers with respect to antibiotic use.MethodsWe surveyed a convenience sample of 384 participants (96 allopathic doctors, 96 nurses, 96 informal providers, and 96 pharmacy shopkeepers) over a period of 8 weeks from December to February using a validated questionnaire developed in Italy. Our team created an equivalent, composite KAP score for each respondent in the survey, which was subsequently compared between providers. We then performed a multivariate logistic regression analysis to estimate the odds of having a low composite score (ResultsDoctors scored highest in questions assessing knowledge (77.3%) and attitudes (87.3%), but performed poorly in practices (67.6%). Many doctors knew that antibiotics were not indicated for viral infections, but over 87% (n = 82) reported prescribing them in this situation. Nurses, pharmacy shopkeepers, and informal providers were more likely to perform poorly on the survey compared to allopathic doctors (OR: 10.4, 95% CI 5.4, 20.0, pConclusionsOur findings indicate poor knowledge and awareness of antibiotic use and functions among informal health providers, and dissonance between knowledge and practices among allopathic doctors. The nexus between allopathic doctors, pharmaceutical company representatives, and informal health providers present promising avenues for future research and intervention.

Background North-west Ethiopia faces the highest burden world-wide of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and HIV co-infection. VL-HIV co-infected patients have higher (initial) parasitological failure and relapse rates than HIV-negative VL patients. Whereas secondary prophylaxis reduces the relapse rate, parasitological failure rates remain high with the available antileishmanial drugs, especially when administered as monotherapy. We aimed to determine the initial effectiveness (parasitologically-confirmed cure) of a combination of liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) and miltefosine for treatment of VL in HIV co-infected patients. Methodology/Principal findings We conducted a retrospective cohort study at a Médecins Sans Frontières—supported health center in north-west Ethiopia. We included VL-HIV co-infected adults, treated for VL between January 2011 and August 2014, with AmBisome infusion (30 mg/kg total dose) and miltefosine orally for 28 days (100 mg/day). Proportions of initial treatment outcome categories were calculated. Predictors of initial parasitological failure and of death were determined using multivariable logistic regression. Of the 173 patients included, 170 (98.3%) were male and the median age was 32 years. The proportion of patients with primary VL (48.0%) and relapse VL (52.0%) were similar. The majority had advanced HIV disease (n = 111; 73.5%) and were on antiretroviral therapy prior to VL diagnosis (n = 106; 64.2%). Initial cure rate was 83.8% (95% confidence interval [CI], 77.6–88.6); death rate 12.7% (95% CI, 8.5–18.5) and parasitological failure rate 3.5% (95% CI, 1.6–7.4). Tuberculosis co-infection at VL diagnosis was predictive of parasitological failure (adjusted odds ratio (aOR), 8.14; p = 0.02). Predictors of death were age >40 years (aOR, 5.10; p = 0.009), hemoglobin ≤6.5 g/dL (aOR, 5.20; p = 0.002) and primary VL (aOR, 8.33; p = 0.001). Conclusions/Significance Initial parasitological failure rates were very low with AmBisome and miltefosine combination therapy. This regimen seems a suitable treatment option. Knowledge of predictors of poor outcome may facilitate better management. These findings remain to be confirmed in clinical trials., Author summary North-west Ethiopia faces the highest burden world-wide of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and HIV co-infection. VL treatment outcomes in HIV co-infected patients are associated with high initial treatment (parasitological) failure and recurrence rates after cure (relapse). With secondary chemoprophylaxis, the risk of relapse can be reduced. However, with the current VL treatment regimens, the initial parasitological failure rates remain high. In this study, we aimed to determine the initial effectiveness of a combination of liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome) and miltefosine for treatment of VL in HIV patients in Ethiopia. We conducted a retrospective study using routine program data from a Médecins Sans Frontières—supported health center in north-west Ethiopia. We included 173 adult VL-HIV co-infected patients treated for VL with a combination of AmBisome and miltefosine. Initial cure rate was 83.8%, death rate 12.7% and parasitological failure rate 3.5%. Tuberculosis co-infection at VL diagnosis was predictive of initial parasitological failure. Predictors of death were age >40 years, hemoglobin ≤6.5 g/dL and primary VL. Initial parasitological failure rates were very low with AmBisome and miltefosine combination therapy. This regimen seems a suitable treatment option. Knowledge of predictors of poor outcome may facilitate better management. These findings remain to be confirmed in other studies.

Introduction: In 2015, following an influx of population into Kobanê in northern Syria, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) in collaboration with the Kobanê Health Administration (KHA) initiated primary healthcare activities. A vaccination coverage survey and vaccine-preventable disease (VPD) risk analysis were undertaken to clarify the VPD risk and vaccination needs. This was followed by a measles Supplementary Immunization Activity (SIA). We describe the methods and results used for this prioritisation activity around vaccination in Kobanê in 2015. Methods: We implemented a pre-SIA survey in 135 randomly-selected households in Kobanê using a vaccination history questionnaire for all children

Background Misuse of antibiotics is a well-known driver of antibiotic resistance. Given the decentralized model of the Indian health system and the shortage of allopathic doctors in rural areas, a wide variety of healthcare providers cater to the needs of patients in urban and rural settings. This qualitative study explores the drivers of antibiotic use among formal and informal healthcare providers as well as patients accessing care at primary health centers across Paschim Bardhaman district in West Bengal. Materials and methods We conducted 28 semi-structured, in-depth interviews with four groups of healthcare providers (allopathic doctors, informal health providers, nurses, and pharmacy shopkeepers) as well as patients accessing care at primary health centers and hospitals across Paschim Bardhaman district. Qualitative data was analyzed using the framework method in an inductive and deductive manner. Results Our results indicate that patients demand antibiotics from healthcare providers and seek the fastest cure possible, which influences the prescription choices of healthcare providers, particularly informal health providers. Many allopathic doctors provide antibiotics without any clinical indication due to inconsistent follow up, lack of testing facilities, risk of secondary infections, and unhygienic living conditions. Pharmaceutical company representatives actively network with informal health providers and formal healthcare providers alike, and regularly visit providers even in remote areas to market newer antibiotics. Allopathic doctors and informal health providers frequently blame the other party for being responsible for antibiotic resistance, and yet both display interdependence in referring patients to one another. Conclusions A holistic approach to curbing antibiotic resistance in West Bengal and other parts of India should focus on strengthening the capacity of the existing public health system to deliver on its promises, improving patient education and counseling, and including informal providers and pharmaceutical company representatives in community-level antibiotic stewardship efforts.