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Indigenous peoples often endure significant health disparities fueled by historic and ongoing marginalizing policies and practices. In many cases, Indigenous groups are isolated from mainstream health care services (geographically, economically, or culturally) and lack the preventive health benefits associated with continuity of care.1 In Canada, this manifests in disproportionately high rates of chronic disease, often diagnosed at a younger age and greater severity than non-Indigenous groups. Of these, chronic kidney disease (CKD), diabetes, and hypertension are highly prevalent, reaching epidemic levels in many communities.2 Kidney Check is a comprehensive screen, triage, and treat initiative working to bring preventive kidney care to rural and remote Indigenous communities across Manitoba, Ontario, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan. Modeled after the 2015 FINISHED initiative in Manitoba,3 and working within the CanSOLVE CKD network (www.cansolveckd.ca/), Kidney Check employs point-of-care testing (POCT) to identify CKD, diabetes, and hypertension in individuals aged 10 and up regardless of preexisting risk factors. To ensure the efficacy and sustainability of the program, Kidney Check relies on a strategic quality management system that addresses all aspects of the screening process. The intent of this manuscript is to describe the development process of all procedures and components related to the deployment of the Kidney Check program with specific focus on organizational structure, point-of-care testing devices, and data management. The Kidney Check Team Kidney Check’s management structure consists of the leadership team, advisory committee, patient partner committee, and mobile screening teams. Leadership provides guidance to the provincial teams to ensure the appropriate objectives, processes, and tools are in place to support high-functioning groups. This includes working closely with the advisory committee to preemptively identify potential barriers and risk issues in order to develop efficient mitigation strategies. Largely composed of Indigenous stakeholders and closely affiliated with the CanSOLVE CKD Indigenous People’s Engagement Council (IPERC), the advisory committee provides valuable insight on how to best use engagement strategies to maximize participation in the screening event. They are supported by the patient partner committee that oversees the execution of knowledge translation activities including but not limited to community selection criteria, community engagement procedures, and review of communication materials and strategies. Screening teams operate under the auspices of the Diabetes Integration Project and First Nations Health and Social Secretariat of Manitoba (FNHSSM). Stationed in various communities across the country, the team’s primary aim is to accommodate high throughput while maintaining quality control (QC) standards. As an affiliate of the CanSOLVE CKD network, members of all committees within Kidney Check have linkages to the broader network.

Access to health care services remains a significant barrier for many Indigenous people's living in rural and remote regions of Canada. Driven by geographical isolation and compounded by socioeconomic and environmental disparities, individuals living under these circumstances face disproportionately poor health outcomes. Kidney Check is a comprehensive screening, triage, and treatment initiative working to bring culturally safe preventive care to rural and remote Indigenous communities across Manitoba, Ontario, BC, Alberta, and Saskatchewan. The project's patient-oriented approach addresses concerns raised by kidney patients and their caregivers using culturally safe practices. Using the various expertise of their multidisciplinary team, Kidney Check seeks to further collaborative efforts to improve access to preventive health care for these groups. Meaningful engagement with patients, communities, and local health care stakeholders ensures Indigenous voices are heard and incorporated into the project in a way that promotes shared decision-making and sustainability.As an affiliate program of the Can-SOLVE CKD Network, Kidney Check's guiding priorities were developed over 3 years of patient consultation and finalized during 2 workshops held with more than 30 patients, caregivers, Indigenous peoples, researchers, and policy makers using a modified Delphi process. Today, patients continue to participate in project development via 2 governing bodies: The Patient Governance Circle and the Indigenous Peoples Engagement and Research Council (IPERC).Modeled after the Indigenous-led 2015 FINISHED project in Manitoba, Kidney Check employs point-of-care testing to identify diabetes, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease (CKD) in individuals, ages 10 and above, regardless of pre-existing risk factors. The Kidney Check team consists of 4 working groups: project leadership, provincial management, local community partners, and patient partners. By using and building on existing relationships between local and provincial health care stakeholders and various Indigenous communities, the program furthers collaborative efforts to bridge gaps in health equity.The Kidney Check program has established an infrastructure that integrates patient engagement at all stages of the program from priority setting to deployment and dissemination strategies.While we encourage and offer screening services to all, many still choose not to attend for a variety of reasons which may introduce selection bias. Kidney Check uses patient engagement as a foundational component of the program; however, there is currently a limited amount of research documenting the benefits of patient engagement in health care settings. More formal qualitative evaluations of these activities are needed. In addition, as the COVID-19 pandemic has halted screening procedures in most communities, we currently do not have quantitative data to support the efficacy of the Kidney Check program.For many Indigenous people, lack of accessibility to health care services is compounded by sociopolitical barriers that disrupt relationships between patients and providers. Meaningful engagement presents one opportunity to ensure the voices and perspectives of Indigenous patients and communities are incorporated into health services. In addition, this screening paradigm has shown to be cost effective as shown by analyses done on the FINISHED screening program.L’accès aux services de santé demeure un obstacle important pour de nombreuses populations autochtones vivant dans les régions rurales et éloignées du Canada. En raison de l’isolement géographique et de disparités environnementales et socio-économiques, les personnes vivant dans ces situations sont confrontées à de pauvres conditions de santé. Kidney Check est une initiative complète de dépistage, de triage et de traitement qui vise à offrir des soins préventifs et respectueux de leurs valeurs culturelles aux communautés autochtones rurales et éloignées du Manitoba, de l’Ontario, de la Colombie-Britannique, de l’Alberta et de la Saskatchewan. L’approche axée sur le patient répond aux préoccupations soulevées par les patients atteints de néphropathies et leurs soignants grâce à des pratiques adaptées à leur culture. En exploitant les compétences d’une équipe multidisciplinaire, Kidney Check s’efforce de poursuivre les efforts de collaboration visant l’amélioration de l’accès à des soins de santé préventifs pour ces groupes. Un engagement significatif des patients, des communautés et des acteurs locaux du secteur de la santé garantit que les voix autochtones sont entendues et intégrées dans le projet d’une manière qui favorise la pérennité et la prise de décision partagée.Kidney Check étant un programme affilié du réseau CAN-SOLVE CKD, ses priorités directrices ont été élaborées à partir d’une consultation de 3 ans auprès des patients et finalisées au cours de deux ateliers utilisant une version modifiée de la méthode Delphi et réunissant plus d’une trentaine de patients, soignants, membres des communautés autochtones, chercheurs et décideurs. Les patients continuent à ce jour de participer au développement du projet par l’entremise de deux organes directeurs: le Conseil des patients et le Conseil de la recherche et de l’engagement des peuples autochtones (IPICER).Inspiré du projet de dépistage FINISHED mené en 2015 auprès des Autochtones du Manitoba, Kidney Check utilise des tests au point de service pour dépister le diabète, l’hypertension et l’insuffisance rénale chronique chez les personnes âgées de 10 ans et plus, quels que soient les facteurs de risque préexistants. L’équipe de Kidney Check se compose de quatre groupes de travail: direction du projet, gestion provinciale, partenaires communautaires locaux et patients partenaires. En utilisant et en s’appuyant sur les relations existantes entre les intervenants locaux et provinciaux du secteur de la santé et les diverses communautés autochtones, le programme favorise les efforts de collaboration pour combler les écarts en matière d’équité en santé.Le programme Kidney Check a mis en place une infrastructure impliquant la participation des patients à toutes les étapes du programme, de l’établissement des priorités aux stratégies de déploiement et de diffusion.Nous encourageons et offrons ces services de dépistage à tous, mais, pour diverses raisons, beaucoup choisissent de ne pas y participer, ce qui peut introduire un biais de sélection. La participation des patients est un élément fondamental du programme Kidney Check; néanmoins, les avantages d’un engagement des patients dans les établissements de soins de santé demeurent peu documentés. Davantage d’évaluations qualitatives formelles de ces activités sont donc nécessaires. De plus, la pandémie de COVID-19 ayant interrompu les procédures de dépistage dans la plupart des collectivités, nous ne disposons pas actuellement de données quantitatives pour soutenir l’efficacité du programme.Pour de nombreuses populations autochtones, le manque d’accessibilité aux services de santé est aggravé par des obstacles sociopolitiques qui perturbent les relations entre les patients et les fournisseurs de soins. La participation significative des patients et des communautés autochtones permet d’assurer que leurs voix et perspectives soient intégrées dans les services de santé. En outre, ce paradigme de dépistage s’est révélé rentable, comme le montrent les analyses effectuées sur le programme de dépistage FINISHED.

BACKGROUND: Indigenous populations are disproportionately affected by kidney failure at younger ages than other ethnic groups in Canada. As symptoms do not occur until disease is advanced, early kidney disease risk is often unrecognized. OBJECTIVES: We sought to evaluate the yield of community-based screening for early risk factors for kidney disease in youth from rural Indigenous communities in Canada. METHODS: The FINISHED project screened 11 rural First Nations communities in Manitoba, Canada after community and school engagement. The results for the 10- to 17-year olds are reported here. Body mass index (BMI), blood pressure, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), hemoglobin A1c’s (HbA1c) and urine albumin-to-creatinine ratios (ACR) were assessed. All children were triaged and referred to either primary or tertiary care, depending on risk. RESULTS: A total of 353 were screened (estimated 22.4% of population). The median age was 12 years (IQR 10 to 13), 55% were female and 55% were overweight or obese. Overall, 21.8% of children had at least one abnormality. Hypertension was identified in 5.4% and 11.9% had prehypertension. None of the children had an eGFR < 60 ml/min/1.73 m(2) however 10.5% had an ACR > 3 mg/mmol and 6.2% had an eGFR < 90 ml/min/1.73 m(2) suggestive of early kidney disease. Diabetes was identified in 1.4%, and 1.4% had HbA1c’s between 6.1% and 6.49%. CONCLUSIONS: Risk factors for chronic kidney disease are highly prevalent in rural Indigenous children. More research is required to confirm the persistence of these findings, and to evaluate the efficacy of screening children to prevent or delay progression to kidney failure.

Introduction: Rural and remote indigenous individuals have a high burden of chronic kidney disease (CKD) when compared to the general population. However, it has not been previously explored how these rates compare to urban-dwelling indigenous populations. Methods: In a recent cross-sectional screening study, 1346 adults 18 to 80 years of age were screened for CKD and diabetes across 11 communities in rural and remote areas in Manitoba, Canada, as part of the First Nations Community Based Screening to Improve Kidney Health and Prevent Dialysis (FINISHED) program. An additional 284 Indigenous adults who resided in low-income areas in the city of Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada were screened as part of the NorWest Mobile Diabetes and Kidney Disease Screening and Intervention Project. Results: Our findings indicate that a gradient of CKD and diabetes prevalence exists for Indigenous individuals living in different geographic areas. Compared to urban-dwelling Indigenous individuals, rural-dwelling individuals had more than a 2-fold (2.1, 95% CI = 1.4−3.1) increase in diabetes whereas remote-dwelling individuals had a 4-fold (4.1, 95% CI = 2.8−6.0) increase, and more than a 3-fold (3.1, 95% CI = 2.2−4.5) increase in CKD prevalence. Conclusion: Although these results highlight the relative importance of geography in determining the prevalence of diabetes and CKD in Indigenous Canadians, geography is but an important surrogate of other determinants, such as poverty and access to care. Keywords: chronic kidney disease, Indigenous Canadians, remoteness, rurality, screening, social determinants of health

Canadian indigenous (First Nations) have rates of kidney failure that are 2- to 4-fold higher than the non-indigenous general Canadian population. As such, a strategy of targeted screening and treatment for CKD may be cost-effective in this population. Our objective was to assess the cost utility of screening and subsequent treatment for CKD in rural Canadian indigenous adults by both estimated glomerular filtration rate and the urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio. A decision analytic Markov model was constructed comparing the screening and treatment strategy to usual care. Primary outcomes were presented as incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) presented as a cost per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY). Screening for CKD was associated with an ICER of $23,700/QALY in comparison to usual care. Restricting the model to screening in communities accessed only by air travel (CKD prevalence 34.4%), this ratio fell to $7,790/QALY. In road accessible communities (CKD prevalence 17.6%) the ICER was $52,480/QALY. The model was robust to changes in influential variables when tested in univariate sensitivity analyses. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis found 72% of simulations to be cost-effective at a $50,000/QALY threshold and 93% of simulations to be cost-effective at a $100,000/QALY threshold. Thus, targeted screening and treatment for CKD using point-of-care testing equipment in rural Canadian indigenous populations is cost-effective, particularly in remote air access–only communities with the highest risk of CKD and kidney failure. Evaluation of targeted screening initiatives with cluster randomized controlled trials and integration of screening into routine clinical visits in communities with the highest risk is recommended.

Background Indigenous Canadians have high rates of risk factors for chronic kidney disease (CKD), in particular diabetes. Furthermore, they have increased rates of complications associated with CKD, such as kidney failure and vascular disease. Our objective was to describe the prevalence of CKD in this population. Study Design Cross-sectional cohort. Setting & Participants Indigenous (First Nations) Canadians 18 years or older screened as part of the First Nations Community Based Screening to Improve Kidney Health and Prevent Dialysis (FINISHED) project, an initiative completed in 2015 that accomplished community-wide screening in 11 rural communities in Manitoba, Canada. Predictors Indigenous ethnicity and geographic location (communities accessible by road compared with those accessible only by air). Outcome Prevalence of CKD, presumed based on a single ascertainment of urine albumin-creatinine ratio (UACR) ≥ 30mg/g and/or estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) 2 . Measurements Kidney function measured by eGFR (CKD-EPI creatinine equation) and UACR. Results 1,346 adults were screened; 25.5% had CKD, defined as UACR≥30mg/g or eGFR 2 . Communities accessible by road had a lower prevalence of CKD (17.6%) than more remote communities accessible only by air (34.4%). Of those screened, 3.3% had reduced kidney function (defined as eGFR 2 ). Severely increased albuminuria was present in 5.0% of those screened. Limitations Presumption of chronicity based on a single ascertainment. There is a possibility of sampling bias, the net direction of which is uncertain. Conclusions We found a 2-fold higher prevalence of CKD in indigenous Canadians in comparison to the general population and a prevalence of severely increased albuminuria that was 5-fold higher. This is comparable to patients with diabetes and/or hypertension. Public health strategies to screen, triage, and treat all Canadian indigenous peoples with CKD should be considered.

Screening the general population for Chronic Kidney Disease is not currently recommended.. Rural and remote Canadian First Nations people suffer a disproportionate burden of Kidney Failure. The Fi rst N at i ons Community Based S creening to Improve Kidney He alth and Prevent D ialysis ( FINISHED ) project intends to test the hypothesis that a mobile, mass screening initiative available to all First Nations people 10 years of age and older residing in rural and/or remote communities, is feasible, will improve health outcomes and is cost effective.The objective of this manuscript is to describe the key elements required to design, implement and evaluate such a program and describe key characteristics of our screened cohort.Methods and cohort description.11 First Nations communities within 2 Tribal Councils in Manitoba, Canada.All First Nations individuals between the ages of 10-80 living in the 11communities were eligible for the screening initiative.Screening Rates achieved within communities.An interdisciplinary team partnership was established between the Diabetes Integration Project and the Manitoba Renal Program. Stakeholder consultation was obtained and protocols developed to mass screen community members using point of care testing equipment. All people screened were risk stratified, counselled and referred to nephrologists as required in real time, based on risk.As of August 31, 2014, 1480 people in 11 communities over 2 Tribal Councils have been successfully screened. A mean screening rate of 21% of all community members eligible (aged 10-80) has been achieved. All patients at intermediate or high risk of kidney failure have been seen by nephrologists within 1 month of screening.Long term outcomes of kidney failure rates not assessed for at least 5 years. Alternative public health initiatives to reduce kidney failure not investigated.Point of care mass screening, real time risk prediction and counselling of First Nations people at high risk of Kidney Failure is feasible in rural and remote communities. Further analysis of this cohort will describe theepidemiology of CKD in these communities, and test the cost effectiveness of this strategy.Présentement, le dépistage universel systématique des maladies rénales chroniques est une pratique ni recommandée ni souhaitée. Les membres des Premières Nations du Canada qui vivent en région rurale ou éloignée sont aux prises avec un fardeau d’insuffisance rénale beaucoup plus lourd que le reste de la population. Le projet de dépistage des maladies rénales et de prévention de la dialyse des communautés des Premières Nations, l’initiative FINISHED (pourL’objectif principal de cet article est, d’une part, la description détaillée des principaux éléments nécessaires à la conception, l’implémentation et l’évaluation d’un programme de cette envergure, et d’autre part, la production de données préliminaires décrivant les caractéristiques de base de la cohorte dépistée.Éléments méthodologiques et description de la cohorte.11 communautés des Premières Nations provenant de 2 conseils de bande du Manitoba, au Canada.Tous les membres des communautés des Premières Nations sélectionnées, âgés de 10 à 80 ans, étaient admissibles à l’initiative de dépistage.Taux de dépistage atteint au sein des communautés.Une équipe multidisciplinaire, issue d’une collaboration entre leAu 31 août 2014, 1480 personnes provenant des 11 communautés des 2 conseils de bande ont été dépistées avec succès. Le taux de dépistage moyen de l’ensemble des membres admissibles (âgés de 10 à 80 ans) atteint est de 21%. Tous les patients aux prises avec un risque élevé ou modéré d’insuffisance rénale ont été rencontrés par des équipes multidisciplinaires en néphrologie, à l’intérieur d’une période d’un mois suivant le dépistage.Les répercussions à long terme des taux d’insuffisance rénale n’avaient pas été évaluées depuis un minimum de 5 ans. Les initiatives de santé publique complémentaires visant à diminuer les taux d’insuffisance rénale n’ont pas été examinées.Il est faisable d’effectuer le dépistage universel, la prévision du risque de maladie et la consultation en temps réel des membres des Premières Nations à haut risque d’insuffisance rénale, à partir de points de service, en région rurale ou éloignée. Une analyse plus poussée de cette cohorte pourra faire ressortir les données épidémiologiques actuelles sur la maladie rénale chronique au sein des communautés visées, et permettra d’évaluer la rentabilité de cette stratégie, dont le but est la réduction du fardeau d’insuffisance rénale, et des répercussions engendrées par les complications qui en découlent.

Objectives To carry out a systematic review of interventions that have aimed at improving screening, treatment, prevention and management of type 2 diabetes and obesity-related chronic disease in Indigenous communities in Canada from 2008 to 2014, with the aim of identifying current best practices. Methods A comprehensive literature review was carried out through an electronic database search using Medline, EMBASE, PubMED and Google scholar. Results We identified 17 publications, comprising 13 evaluated interventions. Of them, 7 were school-based programs focused on children, 5 focused on adults, and 1 included both adults and children. Most interventions aimed at encouraging behaviour change, especially dietary change, but did little to address the underlying context of systemic marginalization and colonialism experienced in many Indigenous communities. Interventions focused on improving fitness were more effective than those aimed at dietary change. Overall, we found a range of successes among these interventions. Those that met with limited success reported that complex social issues and poverty presented challenges to effective intervention work in these communities. Participatory action research methods and community ownership of the intervention were found to be essential for project success. Conclusions Diabetes-focused intervention research in Indigenous communities appears to be a low priority for Canadian funders and policymakers. More intervention research is urgently needed in these communities. To be effective, this work must take an approach that is historically deep and sufficiently broad as to enable the ideologic, policy and institutional changes necessary in order to achieve true equity. This will involve addressing colonialism, racism and social exclusion as broader determinants of health.