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This study explored the novel immune checkpoint poliovirus receptor- related immunoglobulin domain-containing (PVRIG) in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). We showed that AML patient blasts consistently expressed the PVRIG ligand (poliovirus receptor-related 2, PVRL2). Furthermore, PVRIG blockade significantly enhanced naural killer (NK)-cell killing of PVRL2+, poliovirus receptor (PVR)lo AML cell lines, and significantly increased NK-cell activation and degranulation in the context of patient primary AML blasts. However, in AML patient bone marrow, NK-cell PVRIG expression levels were not increased. In order to understand how PVRIG blockade might potentially be exploited therapeutically, we investigated the biology of PVRIG and revealed that NK-cell activation resulted in reduced PVRIG expression on the cell surface. This occurred whether NK cells were activated by tumor cell recognition, cytokines (interleukin 2 [IL-2] and IL-12) or activating receptor stimulation (CD16 and NKp46). PVRIG was present at higher levels in the cytoplasm than on the cell surface, particularly on CD56bright NK cells, which further increased cytoplasmic PVRIG levels following IL-2 and IL-12 activation. PVRIG was continually transported to the cell surface via the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi in both unstimulated and activated NK cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that anti-PVRIG blocking antibody functions by binding to surface-bound PVRIG, which undergoes rapid turnover in both unstimulated and activated NK cells. We conclude that the PVRIG-PVRL2 immune checkpoint axis can feasibly be targeted with PVRIG blocking antibody for NK-mediated immunotherapy of PVRL2+ AML.

Here we describe the application of mass cytometry to analyze tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in human melanoma. Mass cytometry is the coupling of flow cytometry and mass spectrometry, which allows for the simultaneous measurement of 40+ cell parameters on a per cell basis. Heavy metal-labeled antibodies can bind to proteins (CD markers, transcription factors, cytokines) on the cell surface and in the cytoplasm/nucleus. As labeled cells pass through the CyTOF, the instrument detects the heavy metals. Combining these signals allows description of melanoma tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes at a greater depth than alternative phenotyping strategies and enables detailed analyses of a variety of cellular parameters, including immune cell lineage, activation status, and functional polarization.

We describe here a protocol to measure gene expression, T cell receptor (TCR) sequence, and protein expression by single T cells extracted from melanoma, using 10× Chromium technology. This method includes freezing and thawing of the melanoma infiltrating lymphocytes, staining of cells with fluorescent and barcode-conjugated antibodies, sorting of T cells, and loading the cells on the 10× Chromium Controller. After sequencing, analysis includes quality control, genetic demultiplexing to resolve genetically different samples, and T cell clonality and clustering analysis. Single cell RNA sequencing paints the complete portrait of individual T cells, including their clonality and phenotype, and it reconstructs a complete picture of the T cell infiltrate in a tumor that is represented as cell clustering similar to a pointillism painting.

Simple Summary Chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) are engineered molecules expressed on the cell surface that can recognise specific proteins and deliver an activation signal to the cells. Human T lymphocytes equipped with CAR, also called CAR-T cells, can target and kill tumour cells. This technology has been successfully used in treating some of the blood cancers in the last decade. Although the majority of research interest in CAR technology has been focused on CAR-T cells to date, the CAR design has also been used in other types of immune cells to fight against cancers. In this review, we discuss recent advances in CAR design beyond that used in conventional CAR-T cells and their novel indications to develop more potent CAR-based therapy for cancers. Abstract Chimeric antigen receptors (CAR) are genetically engineered receptors that can recognise specific antigens and subsequently activate downstream signalling. Human T cells engineered to express a CAR, also known as CAR-T cells, can target a specific tumour antigen on the cell surface to mediate a cytotoxic response against the tumour. CAR-T cell therapy has achieved remarkable success in treating hematologic malignancies, but not in solid tumours. Currently, extensive research is being carried out to make CAR-T cells a therapy for solid tumours. To date, most of the research interest in the field has focused on cytotoxic T lymphocytes as the carrier of CAR products. However, in addition to T cells, the CAR design can be introduced in other immune cells, such as natural killer (NK)/NKT cells, γδ T cells, mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells, dendritic cells (DC), macrophages, regulatory T cells (Treg), B cells, etc. Some of the CAR-engineered immune cells, such as CAR- γδ T and CAR-NK/NK-T cells, are directly involved in the anti-tumour response, demonstrated in preclinical studies and/or clinical trials. CAR-Tregs showed promising therapeutic potential in treating autoimmune diseases. In particular, B cells engineered with chimeric receptors can be used as a platform for long-term delivery of therapeutic proteins, such as recombinant antibodies or protein replacement, in an antigen-specific manner. CAR technology is one of the most powerful engineering platforms in immunotherapy, especially for the treatment of cancers. In this review, we will discuss the recent application of the CAR design in non-CAR-T cells and future opportunities in immunotherapy.

Immunomodulatory drugs (IMiDs) are effective treatments for patients with multiple myeloma. IMiDs have pleotropic effects including targeting the myeloma cells directly, and improving the anti-myeloma immune response. In the absence of myeloma cells, lenalidomide and pomalidomide induce CD4+ T cell secretion of IL-2 and indirect activation of Natural Killer (NK) cells. In the context of T cell receptor ligation, IMiDs enhance T cell proliferation, cytokine release and Th1 responses, both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, combination treatment of IMiDs and myeloma-targeting monoclonal antibodies eg. daratumumab (anti-CD38) and elotuzumab (anti-SLAMF7), checkpoint inhibitors, or bispecific T cell engagers showed synergistic effects, mainly via enhanced T and NK cell dependent cellular toxicity and T cell proliferation. Conversely, the corticosteroid dexamethasone can impair the immune modulatory effects of IMiDs, indicating that careful choice of myeloma drugs in combination with IMiDs is key for the best anti-myeloma therapeutic efficacy. This review presents an overview of the role for T cells in the overall anti-myeloma effects of immunomodulatory drugs.

This unit describes the utility of various mouse models of infection and immunization for studying mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cell immunity: MAIT cells can be isolated from the lungs (or from other tissues/organs) and then identified and characterized by flow cytometry using MR1 tetramers in combination with a range of antibodies. The response kinetics, cytokine profiles, and functional differentiation of lung MAIT cells are studied following infection with the bacterial pathogen Legionella longbeachae or Salmonella enterica Typhimurium or immunization with synthetic MAIT cell antigen plus Toll-like receptor agonist. MAIT cells enriched or expanded during the process can be used for further studies. A step-by-step protocol is provided for MAIT cell sorting and adoptive transfer. Mice can then be challenged and MAIT cells tracked and further examined. © 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Despite recent breakthroughs in identifying mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cell antigens (Ags), the precise requirements for in vivo MAIT cell responses to infection remain unclear. Using major histocompatibility complex-related protein 1 (MR1) tetramers, the MAIT cell response was investigated in a model of bacterial lung infection employing riboflavin gene-competent and -deficient bacteria. MAIT cells were rapidly enriched in the lungs of C57BL/6 mice infected with Salmonella Typhimurium, comprising up to 50% of αβ-T cells after 1 week. MAIT cell accumulation was MR1-dependent, required Ag derived from the microbial riboflavin synthesis pathway, and did not occur in response to synthetic Ag, unless accompanied by a Toll-like receptor agonist or by co-infection with riboflavin pathway-deficient S. Typhimurium. The MAIT cell response was associated with their long-term accumulation in the lungs, draining lymph nodes and spleen. Lung MAIT cells from infected mice displayed an activated/memory phenotype, and most expressed the transcription factor retinoic acid-related orphan receptor γt. T-bet expression increased following infection. The majority produced interleukin-17 while smaller subsets produced interferon-γ or tumor necrosis factor, detected directly ex vivo. Thus the activation and expansion of MAIT cells coupled with their pro-inflammatory cytokine production occurred in response to Ags derived from microbial riboflavin synthesis and was augmented by co-stimulatory signals.

Background Mucosal associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are evolutionarily-conserved, innate-like lymphocytes which are abundant in human lungs and can contribute to protection against pulmonary bacterial infection. However, whilst they are also activated during human viral infections, it is unknown whether MAIT cells play a significant protective or even detrimental role during viral infections in vivo. Aims and objectives To determine whether MAIT cells play a significant role – either protective or detrimental – during influenza A infection in vivo. Methods We used major histocompatibility complex–related protein 1 (MR1) tetramers and intracellular cytokine staining to track MAIT cell frequencies and activation during in vivo murine experimental challenge with two strains of influenza A virus in immunocompetent (C57BL/6), MAIT-cell deficient (MR1-/-) and immunodeficient (Rag2-/-gC-/-) mice. Results MAIT cells accumulated and were activated early in infection, with upregulation of CD25, CD69 and Granzyme B peaking at 5 days post infection. Activation was modulated via cytokines interleukin (IL)−12,–15, −18 and type I interferon, independent of MR1. MR1-/- mice, which lack MAIT cells, showed enhanced body weight loss and mortality to severe (H1N1) influenza. This was ameliorated by prior adoptive transfer of pulmonary MAIT cells in both immunocompetent (figure 1) and immunodeficient Rag2-/-gC-/- mice which lack T, B and NK cells. Conclusions MAIT cells contribute to protection during respiratory viral infections, and constitute a potential target for therapeutic manipulation.

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are activated in a TCR-dependent manner by antigens derived from the riboflavin synthesis pathway, including 5-(2-oxopropylideneamino)-6-d-ribitylaminouracil (5-OP-RU), bound to MHC-related protein-1 (MR1). However, MAIT cell activation in vivo has not been studied in detail. Here, we have found and characterized additional molecular signals required for optimal activation and expansion of MAIT cells after pulmonary Legionella or Salmonella infection in mice. We show that either bone marrow-derived APCs or non-bone marrow-derived cells can activate MAIT cells in vivo, depending on the pathogen. Optimal MAIT cell activation in vivo requires signaling through the inducible T cell costimulator (ICOS), which is highly expressed on MAIT cells. Subsequent expansion and maintenance of MAIT-17/1-type responses are dependent on IL-23. Vaccination with IL-23 plus 5-OP-RU augments MAIT cell-mediated control of pulmonary Legionella infection. These findings reveal cellular and molecular targets for manipulating MAIT cell function under physiological conditions.

Mucosal-associated Invariant T (MAIT) cells represent a large proportion of T cells in human blood, and are also present throughout the body, being concentrated at mucosal sites. Their high level of conservation throughout mammalian evolution and recognition of conserved microbial antigens, derived from precursors of riboflavin (vitamin B2) biosynthesis, suggest an important role in protective immunity to pathogens. However, the picture that is emerging of MAIT cell immune function is increasingly complex, with numerous correlations of MAIT cell numbers with human diseases, and with recent studies demonstrating their pathogenic potential. The conditions that drive MAIT cell responses towards a protective versus pathogenic role are only beginning to be deciphered and, yet, must be understood for any attempt to harness MAIT cells therapeutically. In this review we summarise our current knowledge of immune protection and pathology driven by MAIT cells, models used to study their role in immunity and steps towards elucidating the immune signals driving these responses.

Mucosal associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are evolutionarily-conserved, innate-like lymphocytes which are abundant in human lungs and can contribute to protection against pulmonary bacterial infection. MAIT cells are also activated during human viral infections, yet it remains unknown whether MAIT cells play a significant protective or even detrimental role during viral infectionsin vivo. Using murine experimental challenge with two strains of influenza A virus, we show that MAIT cells accumulated and were activated early in infection, with upregulation of CD25, CD69 and Granzyme B, peaking at 5 days post infection. Activation was modulated via cytokines independently of MR1. MAIT cell-deficient MR1−/−mice showed enhanced weight loss and mortality to severe (H1N1) influenza. This was ameliorated by prior adoptive transfer of pulmonary MAIT cells in both immunocompetent and immunodeficient RAG2−/−γC−/−mice. Thus, MAIT cells contribute to protection during respiratory viral infections, and constitute a potential target for therapeutic manipulation.

Mucosal associated invariant T (MAIT) cells recognize conserved microbial metabolites from riboflavin synthesis. Striking evolutionary conservation and pulmonary abundance implicate them in antibacterial host defense, yet their roles in protection against clinically significant pathogens are unknown. Murine Legionella infection induced MR1-dependent MAIT cell activation and rapid pulmonary accumulation of MAIT cells associated with immune protection detectable in fully immunocompetent host animals. MAIT cell protection was more evident in mice lacking CD4+ cells, whilst profoundly immunodeficient RAG2−/−γC−/− mice were substantially rescued from uniformly lethal Legionella infection by adoptively-transferred MAIT cells. This protection was dependent on MR1, IFN-γ and GM-CSF, but not IL-17, TNF-α or perforin. Protection was enhanced and observed earlier post-infection in mice that were Ag-primed to boost MAIT cells before infection. Our findings define a significant role for MAIT cells in protection against a major human pathogen and indicate a potential role for vaccination to enhance MAIT cell immunity.

The major-histocompatibility-complex-(MHC)-class-I-related molecule MR1 can present activating and non-activating vitamin-B-based ligands to mucosal-associated invariant T cells (MAIT cells). Whether MR1 binds other ligands is unknown. Here we identified a range of small organic molecules, drugs, drug metabolites and drug-like molecules, including salicylates and diclofenac, as MR1-binding ligands. Some of these ligands inhibited MAIT cells ex vivo and in vivo, while others, including diclofenac metabolites, were agonists. Crystal structures of a T cell antigen receptor (TCR) from a MAIT cell in complex with MR1 bound to the non-stimulatory and stimulatory compounds showed distinct ligand orientations and contacts within MR1, which highlighted the versatility of the MR1 binding pocket. The findings demonstrated that MR1 was able to capture chemically diverse structures, spanning mono- and bicyclic compounds, that either inhibited or activated MAIT cells. This indicated that drugs and drug-like molecules can modulate MAIT cell function in mammals.