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Major causes of chronic kidney disease are primary proliferative and nonproliferative glomerulonephritides (PGN and NPGN). However, the pathogenesis of PGN and NPGN is still not fully understood. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) is a T-cell membrane receptor that plays a key role in T-cell inhibition. Despite its role in autoimmunological diseases, little is known about the involvement of CTLA-4 in the pathogenesis of PGN and NPGN. The objective of this study was to determine the role of CTLA-4 in the pathogenesis of PGN and NPGN by evaluating the frequencies of T and B lymphocytes expressing CTLA-4 and the serum concentration of the sCTLA-4 isoform in patients with PGN and NPGN in relation to clinical parameters. The study included peripheral blood (PB) samples from 40 PGN and NPGN patients and 20 healthy age- and sex-matched volunteers (control group). The viable PB lymphocytes were labeled with fluorochrome-conjugated monoclonal anti-CTLA-4 antibodies and analyzed using flow cytometry. The serum concentration of sCTLA-4 was measured using ELISA. The frequencies and absolute counts of CD4+/CTLA-4+ T lymphocytes, CD8+/CTLA-4+ T lymphocytes and CD19+/CTLA-4+ B lymphocytes and the serum sCTLA-4 concentration were lower in PGN and NPGN patients that in the control group. Reduced sCTLA-4 expression was associated with a lower concentration of serum immunoglobulins. Our results indicate that deregulation of CTLA-4 expression may result in continuous activation of T cells and contribute to the pathogenesis of PGN and NPGN.

Introduction The overweight and obesity epidemic represents a rapidly growing threat to the health of populations in an increasing number of countries. Nearly one-third of the world's population has excess adipose tissue. Nowadays, obesity occurrence is so common that it is replacing more traditional problems, such as an undernutrition and infectious diseases, as the most significant causes of ill health. If the current trend continues, almost half of the world's adult population will be overweight or obese by 2030. Objective The aim of this study is to show the connection between recent trends in body mass index, and the globally changing cancer profile. State of knowledge A range of clinical and epidemiological studies have shown the relationship between excess body fat and the most frequently occurring malignancies. Obesity is associated with many cancers, such as: breast, colorectal, liver, lung, kidney, oesophageal, pancreatic, endometrium, ovarian, prostate, thyroid, and gallbladder cancer. Conclusions In the light of this information, the study supports the claimed statement that obesity is one of the major health problems of the 21st century. Considering the increase in the number of obese people worldwide, it is necessary to develop a strategy allowing to prevent it. Fighting against unhealthy lifestyle in order to reduce overweight and obesity in society may have an essential impact on decreasing the number of incidences of cancer.

Altered immune mechanisms are implicated in the pathogenesis of endometriosis. CTLA-4 is a membrane receptor that favors the anergic state of lymphocytes, which may disrupt the immune system response in the endometriotic environment. In this study, we examined the expression of CTLA-4 on T and B cells by flow cytometry and its levels in blood serum and peritoneal fluid by ELISA. Levels of CTLA-4+ T cells were significantly higher in patients with more advanced endometriosis than in those with less advanced disease. Additionally, the negative correlation of CTLA-4+ T lymphocytes and the percentage of NK and NKT-like cells in women with endometriosis and infertility may indicate a different etiopathogenesis of endometriosis accompanying infertility. Our findings shed light on the potential of CTLA-4 in developing new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in endometriosis management.

The causes of endometriosis (EMS) remain unknown, however, a number of immunological abnormalities contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease. The cluster of differentiation-200 (CD200) and its receptor (CD200R) maintain peripheral self-tolerance by negatively regulating immune responses. In this comparative cross-sectional study, we investigated the expression of CD200 and CD200R on T and B lymphocytes and the serum level of soluble CD200 (sCD200) using flow cytometry and ELISA, respectively. Peripheral blood samples were collected from 54 female patients and 20 healthy, age-matched controls. Results were tested for correlation with disease severity and selected clinical parameters. We demonstrated that the differences in sCD200 levels (p = 0.001), the frequencies of CD200-positive T and B lymphocytes (p &lt, 0.001 and p = 0.004, respectively), and the frequencies of CD200R-positive T and B lymphocytes (p &lt, 0.001 for all comparisons) in the study group correlated positively with disease severity. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis indicated that aberrant expression of CD200/CD200R might serve as a marker to distinguish between EMS cases. Finally, negative co-stimulatory factors may contribute to the induction and persistence of inflammation associated with EMS. It seems that it is essential to determine whether alteration in the CD200/CD200R pathway can be therapeutically targeted in EMS.