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Simple Summary Polyploidy, a balanced amplification of the genome is a defining feature of the liver. Up to 90% of adult hepatocytes in rodents and around 40% of those in humans are polyploid. The polyploidy of these cells depends on both the DNA content of each nucleus (nuclear ploidy) and the number of nuclei per cell (cellular ploidy). Remarkably, the liver is one of the few mammalian organs that display changes in ploidy content during normal homeostasis, regeneration and pathological conditions. Although polyploid hepatocytes were documented over a century ago, the significance of this original phenomenon in the pathophysiology of the liver remains unclear. In this review, we focused on the mechanisms regulating hepatocyte polyploidization both during liver development and under pathological conditions. We also detailed the effects of polyploidy on liver function and explored the fate and the role of the polyploid state during chronic liver diseases. Abstract Polyploidy, also known as whole-genome amplification, is a condition in which the organism has more than two basic sets of chromosomes. Polyploidy frequently arises during tissue development and repair, and in age-associated diseases, such as cancer. Its consequences are diverse and clearly different between systems. The liver is a particularly fascinating organ in that it can adapt its ploidy to the physiological and pathological context. Polyploid hepatocytes are characterized in terms of the number of nuclei per cell (cellular ploidy; mononucleate/binucleate hepatocytes) and the number of chromosome sets in each nucleus (nuclear ploidy; diploid, tetraploid, octoploid). The advantages and disadvantages of polyploidy in mammals are not fully understood. About 30% of the hepatocytes in the human liver are polyploid. In this review, we explore the mechanisms underlying the development of polyploid cells, our current understanding of the regulation of polyploidization during development and pathophysiology and its consequences for liver function. We will also provide data shedding light on the ways in which polyploid hepatocytes cope with centrosome amplification. Finally, we discuss recent discoveries highlighting the possible roles of liver polyploidy in protecting against tumor formation, or, conversely, contributing to liver tumorigenesis.

La polyploïdie (amplification du génome entier) fait référence à des organismes dont les cellules ont plus de deux jeux complets de chromosomes homologues. La polyploïdie a été observée pour la première fois chez les plantes, il y a plus d'un siècle. Il est dorénavant connu que ce processus se produit chez de nombreux eucaryotes dans diverses circonstances. Chez les mammifères, le développement de cellules polyploïdes peut contribuer à la différenciation des tissus. Il peut donc présenter un gain de fonction. Alternativement, il peut être associé au développement de différentes pathologies comme le cancer. Il existe différents mécanismes qui favorisent la genèse des cellules polyploïdes, dont la fusion cellulaire ou une division cellulaire anormale. Chez les mammifères, la polyploïdie est une des caractéristiques des cellules hépatiques. La polyploïdisation survient en effet principalement au cours du développement du parenchyme hépatique, mais également chez l'adulte, à la suite de différents stress. Des progrès récents ont permis de comprendre les mécanismes de polyploïdisation du tissu hépatique et ses conséquences fonctionnelles dans un contexte physiologique et pathologique.

ObjectivesPolyploidy is a fascinating characteristic of liver parenchyma. Hepatocyte polyploidy depends on the DNA content of each nucleus (nuclear ploidy) and the number of nuclei per cell (cellular ploidy). Which role can be assigned to polyploidy during human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development is still an open question. Here, we investigated whether a specific ploidy spectrum is associated with clinical and molecular features of HCC.DesignPloidy spectra were determined on surgically resected tissues from patients with HCC as well as healthy control tissues. To define ploidy profiles, a quantitative and qualitative in situ imaging approach was used on paraffin tissue liver sections.ResultsWe first demonstrated that polyploid hepatocytes are the major components of human liver parenchyma, polyploidy being mainly cellular (binuclear hepatocytes). Across liver lobules, polyploid hepatocytes do not exhibit a specific zonation pattern. During liver tumorigenesis, cellular ploidy is drastically reduced; binuclear polyploid hepatocytes are barely present in HCC tumours. Remarkably, nuclear ploidy is specifically amplified in HCC tumours. In fact, nuclear ploidy is amplified in HCCs harbouring a low degree of differentiation and TP53 mutations. Finally, our results demonstrated that highly polyploid tumours are associated with a poor prognosis.ConclusionsOur results underline the importance of quantification of cellular and nuclear ploidy spectra during HCC tumorigenesis.