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Enzyme modified white cheese (EMWC) was produced to use as flavouring ingredient. White cheese curd coupled with low fat was hydrolysed using combination of proteinases/peptidase to produce a range of proteolysed products followed by lipolysis. The results revealed that lowering pH 5.6 known to impart flavour strength of cheese. The inclusion of enzyme preparations significantly elevated free amino acids and free fatty acids. Developed EMWC had relatively higher levels of volatiles and improved sensory characteristics including less negative attributes such as, astringent, bitter, pungent, rancid, smoky, and more positive attributes, such as the strength of buttery, sweaty, caramel and nutty notes. Spray-dried EMWC powders had low moisture content and water activity values whereas, scanning electron micrographs showed spherical with a uniform distribution and large microparticles size. Because consumers like low fat products with cheese flavour, EMWCs are important products. Thus, process demonstrates the potential to be a cost-effective to produce EMWC flavour as ingredient and may suited to the products in which added. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (10.1007/s13197-018-3526-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The binding capacity of Pb on modified rice bran-insoluble fibers RBIF-0.2, RBIF-1.25, and RBIF-2.0 (0.2%, 1.25%, and 2.0% H2SO4 with 1.25% KOH) having the variable specific surface area and cation-exchange capacity was evaluated. The Pb binding in terms of maximum binding capacity (BCmax) with RBIF increased with pH (2–7). However, the presence of sodium and calcium reduced the binding of Pb to RBIFs. Further, adsorption kinetics followed pseudo-second-order kinetic model when fitted to real Pb sorption data. However, sorption mechanism data (scanning electron microscopy images) were well fitted to Langmuir model instead of Freundlich and Dubinin–Radushkevich that suggests monomolecular adsorption of Pb to RBIF (

Legumes have been bestowed with valuable proteins. Legume proteins not only possess superior nutritional, functional, and anti-oxidative properties, they have also been successfully used as nutraceutical ingredients. The GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status and emulsifying characteristics of legume-derived proteins are the main driving forces behind their utilization for the encapsulation of bioactive compounds. In this review we describe the applications of legume proteins as emulsifiers and encapsulants. In addition, modifications (physical, enzymatic, and chemical) to legume proteins as well as combinations with polysaccharides are also reviewed. Modifications may induce structural changes in the legume proteins, inducing favorable emulsification and encapsulation properties. Combinations of legume proteins with polysaccharides may improve their emulsifying properties and stability against extreme pHs, temperatures, and ionic strengths. Physical, chemical and enzymatic modifications are the principle strategies to modify the native structure of legume proteins for the development of novel emulsifiers. More efforts are needed to explore structure-function relationships and the fate of modified legume proteins during digestion and their interaction with bioactive materials.

Food industry is concentrating on development of novel functional foods fortified/enriched with lipophilic bioactives to improve health and well-being of consumers. β-carotene (BC) and eugenol (EU) co-encapsulated flax seed oil (FSO) emulsions stabilized by octenyl succinic anhydride modified starches (OSA-MS) were spray dried to powders after the emulsification process. Microcapsules showed good dissolution behavior, high (≈90%) microencapsulation efficiency and semi-spherical morphology observed by scanning electron microscopy. A 28 days storage test at 40 °C was carried out to evaluate the effect on physicochemical properties of microcapsules. Microcapsules encapsulated by lower Mw OSA-MS-1 presented higher oxidative stability, lower moisture contents and water activity during storage compared to high Mw OSA-MS-2. Incorporation of EU played its antioxidant role and further improved the oxidative stability as well as retention of core materials. Microcapsules of OSA-MS-1 containing FSO + BC + EU exhibited the maximum retention of BC (71%), EU (84%) and α-linolenic acid (92%). This study indicated a positive role of EU as antioxidant and low Mw OSA-starch as wall material for the encapsulation of lipophilic bioactives that could be used for the development of functional foods and beverages.

β-Carotene (precursor of vitamin A) and α-tocopherol (VE) are essential fat soluble vitamins (FSV) required for better body functioning and deficiencies of these vitamins are linked to many chronic diseases. Encapsulation of FSV into nanoemulsion-based delivery systems improves their aqueous solubility, oxidative stability and bioavailability. In this study, β-carotene (BC) and VE were co-encapsulated using flax seed oil (FSO) or medium chain triglycerides (MCT) as carrier oils and octenyl succinic anhydride modified starch (Purity Gum Ultra, PGU) or Tween-80 (TW) as emulsifiers. Nanoemulsions and bulk carrier oils containing bioactives were stored for 4 weeks to assess the effect of storage temperature on physicochemical properties. Oxidation behavior of bioactives was different in emulsions compared to bulk oil systems. The degradation of FSV was higher at elevated temperature, which was more profound for BC. VE worked as antioxidant for the protection of BC in MCT-based emulsions but it did not protect BC degradation in FSO-based emulsions. However, incorporation of eugenol (EU) improved the oxidative stability as well as retention of FSV in all emulsions. Nanoemulsions containing FSV and EU stabilized by PGU showed overall higher retention of BC (≈42%) and VE (≈90%) after 4 weeks of storage at 40 °C as compared to TW. The higher stability of PGU was due to its ability to form a thicker protective layer around oil droplets. This research provides useful information regarding the simultaneous encapsulation of lipophilic bioactives for the development of functional foods and beverages.

Preparation of oil-in-water nanoemulsions has emerged as a subject of interest for the encapsulation of lipophilic functional ingredients to increase their stability and activity. In this study, black cumin essential oil nanoemulsions (BCO-NE) using different ratios of essential oil with canola and flax seed oils (ripening inhibitors) were formulated and stabilized with octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) modified waxy maize starch. The nanoemulsions exhibited monomodal size distributions with mean droplet diameter below 200 nm and zeta potential above −30, indicating a strong electrostatic repulsion between the dispersed oil droplets. Further, during storage (4 weeks at 25 °C ± 2) emulsions showed shear thinning phenomena and stability towards coalescence. Antimicrobial properties of nanoemulsions were determined by minimum inhibitory concentration and time-kill method against two Gram-positive bacterial (GPB) strains (Bacillus cereus and Listeria monocytogenes). Negatively charged BCO-NE showed prolonged bactericidal activities as compared to pure BCO due to better stability, controlled release and self-assembly with GPB cell membrane followed by destruction of cellular constituents. Our results suggest the application of BCO-NE may be exploited in aqueous food systems for extending the shelf life and other functional properties.

Flax seed oil (FSO) is rich in α-linolenic acid (ALA) and its application as a functional ingredient in oil-in-water systems is limited due to its high vulnerability towards oxidation. To overcome this, flax seed oil nanoemulsions were formulated using eugenol (EUG) as a natural antioxidant and two modified starches (Purity Gum Ultra and Purity Gum 2000) as emulsifier. The effect of eugenol addition and emulsifier type on the size, charge, rheological properties and oxidative stability of nanoemulsions stored under different temperatures (4, 25 and 40 °C) for 4 weeks was investigated. Nanoemulsions containing eugenol, stabilized by Purity Gum Ultra, showed better physical and oxidative stability during storage as compared to Purity Gum 2000 stabilized emulsions. Results revealed higher % retention of ALA (66.34%) and EUG (63.20%) in Purity Gum Ultra stabilized emulsions containing FSO + EUG stored for 4 weeks at 40 °C as compared to Purity Gum 2000 stabilized emulsions containing FSO + EUG. This was attributed to the role of eugenol as antioxidant as well as the formation of a thick protective layer at interface by Purity Gum Ultra due to its higher molecular weight and density.

Transglutaminase (TGase)-modified gelatin films containing different levels of physical and chemical networks were prepared by drying films above or below gelation temperature of gelatin. Differences in protein network structure were observed by optical microscopy analysis in freeze-dried film-forming solutions. The relative amount of triple helices decreased when drying temperature increased as observed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The addition of TGase slightly inhibited triple helix formation. TGase-modified films exhibited stronger mechanical properties than blank films, and the highest tensile strength was observed in films dried close to the gelation temperature (25 °C) and the highest elongation at break above it (35 °C). TGase modification enhanced the water resistance and thermal stability of gelatin films by decreasing the water solubility, increasing the glass transition temperature and degradation temperature, respectively, which was further enhanced with increasing drying temperature. The cross-section (SEM) and surface (AFM) microstructure of gelatin films with TGase both appeared more compact and smooth, and improved when temperature increased. The results obtained show that drying temperature may be used to tailor the physical properties of TGase-modified gelatin films for specific applications.

Clove oil (CO) anionic nanoemulsions were prepared with varying ratios of CO to canola oil (CA), emulsified and stabilized with purity gum ultra (PGU), a newly developed succinylated waxy maize starch. Interfacial tension measurements showed that CO acted as a co-surfactant and there was a gradual decrease in interfacial tension which favored the formation of small droplet sizes on homogenization until a critical limit (5:5% v/v CO:CA) was reached. Antimicrobial activity of the negatively charged CO nanoemulsion was determined against Gram positive GPB (Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram negative GNB (Escherichia coli) bacterial strains using minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and a time kill dynamic method. Negatively charged PGU emulsified CO nanoemulsion showed prolonged antibacterial activities against Gram positive bacterial strains. We concluded that negatively charged CO nanoemulsion droplets self-assemble with GPB cell membrane, and facilitated interaction with cellular components of bacteria. Moreover, no electrostatic interaction existed between negatively charged droplets and the GPB membrane.

The in vitro hypoglycemic properties of three different sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) modified rice bran insoluble fibers (SMRBIFs) produced using 0.2% (0.2%-SMRBIF), 1.25% (1.25%-SMRBIF), 2.0% (2.0%-SMRBIF) (w/v) H 2 SO 4 in combination with 1.25% potassium hydroxide (KOH) respectively, were investigated. The results revealed that all the three RBIFs have strong glucose adsorption capacity and α-amylase inhibition activity, with 1.25%-SMRBIF being the most effective one. The glucose adsorption capacity increased with increasing porosity and specific surface area of the SMRBIFs, and the maximum glucose bound amount increased by 2–3 folds for acid-alkaline treated RBIFs compared to untreated material. The α-amylase inhibition activity of RBIF was associated with the formation of amylase-RBIF complex as confirmed by fluorescence spectroscopy, with the highest amylase activity inhibitory (24.72%) for 1.25%-SMRBIF. However, the glucose diffusion was retarded a bit stronger by these RBIFs compared to the untreated rice bran, which might be attributed to their larger specific surface area. Therefore, it was suggested that the concentration of postprandial serum glucose lowered by RBIF was mainly ascribed to binding glucose and retarding α-amylase action.

Consumption of essential oils (EOs) and their components, such as eugenol (EU) may reduce chronic disorders, but their use in food is currently limited because of poor solubility and low bioavailability. The aim of this work was to study the influence of carrier oil type, particle size on in vitro lipid digestion and EU release using canola (LCT) and MCT oil-in-water emulsions with different droplet diameters (Coarse > 3000 nm, NE1 > 300 nm and NE2 > 150 nm). There was a progressive increase in the mean particle size of coarse emulsions of both LCT & MCT oils as they passed through simulated gastrointestinal tract consisting of mouth, stomach and intestine phases, which was due to droplet coalescence, flocculation and digestion. However, NE1 and NE2 nanoemulsions showed appreciable increase in particle size after exposure to the simulated intestinal fluid. The rate and extent of in vitro lipid digestion increased with decreasing mean droplet diameter (NE2 ≈ NE1 » Coarse) in both MCT & LCT emulsions. However, MCT emulsions showed faster rate of in vitro lipid digestion which was attributed to more exposure of droplets with the lipase. There was also an appreciable increase in release percentage of eugenol with decreasing droplet diameter (NE2 > NE1 > Coarse) and it was higher in LCT (84%) emulsions which was attributed to large hydrophobic cores that better solubilize EU.

Microencapsulation is a process of building a functional barrier between the core and wall material to avoid chemical and physical reactions and to maintain the biological, functional, and physicochemical properties of core materials. Microencapsulation of marine, vegetable, and essential oils has been conducted and commercialized by employing different methods including emulsification, spray-drying, coaxial electrospray system, freeze-drying, coacervation, in situ polymerization, melt-extrusion, supercritical fluid technology, and fluidized-bed-coating. Spray-drying and coacervation are the most commonly used techniques for the microencapsulation of oils. The choice of an appropriate microencapsulation technique and wall material depends upon the end use of the product and the processing conditions involved. Microencapsulation has the ability to enhance the oxidative stability, thermostability, shelf-life, and biological activity of oils. In addition, it can also be helpful in controlling the volatility and release properties of essential oils. Microencapsulated marine, vegetable, and essential oils have found broad applications in various fields. This review describes the recognized benefits and functional properties of various oils, microencapsulation techniques, and application of encapsulated oils in various food, pharmaceutical, and even textile products. Moreover, this review may provide information to researchers working in the field of food, pharmacy, agronomy, engineering, and nutrition who are interested in microencapsulation of oils.

In present study, we developed and optimized soymilk-cow's milk enzyme-modified cheese with angiotensin-I converting enzyme inhibitory activity. Bioactive peptide production was found to be a multivariable-dependent process. Maximum bioactivity of hydrolysates was obtained with prolonged curd proteolysis at an increased enzyme concentration. This bioactive cheese paste was subsequently spray-dried under different drying conditions to determine the powder sorption isotherm properties. Higher drying temperatures resulted in cheese powder with weak thermal stability and lower browning indices. Experiments aimed at optimizing thermal stability and physical properties revealed that optimal conditions for producing cheese powder were an inlet air temperature of 150°C, a feeding rate of 10%, and an air flow rate of 600Lh-1. Moreover, in addition to flavour, the bioactive cheese powders produced from a combination of soymilk-cow's milk are of potential source and can be used in the dietary management of hypertension.

Combined use of soymilk-cow's milk is a novel approach in food industry and has great potential to developed products with numerous health benefits. This study aimed to develop the enzyme-modified cheeses (EMCs) using soymilk-cow's milk. The curd was hydrolysed using combination of proteinases/peptidase to produce a range of proteolysed products followed by lipolysis to create flavoured EMCs. Results showed that enzymes led to an increase in amino acids (AA), free fatty acids (FFA), complex volatiles, and improved sensory attributes. The EMCs showed higher mean values of AA, FFA and volatile compounds when prepared using Flavourzyme® in combination with Lipases AY30 and DF15. EMCs were less eggy, bitter, pungent, more buttery, saltier, nutty, and had sweet sensory characteristics. Overall, results demonstrated the potential of combined matrix to create a range of flavoured EMCs for a wider range of consumers.

The oxidative stability of (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) incorporated as inclusion complexes (ICs) in sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin sodium (SBE-β-CD) and then ionotropically crosslinked with chitosan hydrochloride (CSH) into nanoparticles were investigated. EGCG-loaded CSH-SBE-β-CD nanoparticles (CSNs) were physically unstable at higher pH and temperature. The particle size of CSNs was unchanged in the pH range of 3-5, but the microenvironment of EGCG-IC appeared to be intact until the pH increased to 6.5 by fluorescence spectroscopy. The physical structure of EGCG-ICs was also affected during storage in addition to CSNs, which was further affected as temperature increased from 25 to 55°C. The decrease in antioxidant activities of EGCG-ICs and free EGCG with increasing pH, storage time and temperature were modest compared to the prominent decreases in antioxidant activities of EGCG-loaded CSNs. The extreme entrapment of EGCG-ICs and/or free EGCG in the aggregated CSNs restricted the release of EGCG, thus inhibiting the antioxidant activities.

Based on encouraged development of potential reduced-exposure products (PREPs) by the US Institute of Medicine, casings (glucose and peptides) added treatments (CAT) and enzymatic (protease and xylanase) hydrolysis treatments (EHT) were developed to study their effect on alkaloids reduction in tobacco and cigarette mainstream smoke (MS) and further investigate the correlation between sensory attributes and alkaloids. Results showed that the developed treatments reduced nicotine by 14.5% and 24.4% in tobacco and cigarette MS, respectively, indicating that both CAT and EHT are potentially effective for developing lower-risk cigarettes. Sensory and electronic nose analysis confirmed the significant influence of treatments on sensory and cigarette MS components. PLSR analysis demonstrated that tobacco alkaloids were positively correlated to the off-taste, irritation and impact attributes, and negatively correlated to the aroma and softness attributes. Additionally, nicotine and anabasine from tobacco leaves positively contributed to the impact attribute, while they negatively contributed to the aroma attribute ( P 0 . 05 ). Meanwhile, most alkaloids in cigarette MS positively contributed to the impact and irritation attributes ( P 0 . 05 ). Hence, this study paved a way to better understand the correlation between tobacco alkaloids and sensory attributes.