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Many skills underpin the performance of sporting officials, however decision-making is regarded as the most critical. There are finite on-field opportunities to develop decision-making of sporting officials in training and competition, as a consequence, video-based approaches are typically used to assess and develop decision-making skill. Existing methods such as the use of match broadcast video may not be an ecologically valid method to present decision-making scenarios. With technological advancements, using virtual reality may improve the ecological validity of video-based approaches to improve decision-making. Study 1 systematically reviewed existing research utilising video-based testing to assess decision-making in officials, which often differentiates between skill levels to demonstrate construct validity. Study 1 identified several limitations including common use of match broadcast video, limited reporting of reliability, and studies often solely reporting number of decisions rather than performance accuracy. Comparison between video-based and in-game decision-making performance was rarely conducted. This study provided the foundation to further examine the efficacy of video- based tests in sporting officials. Study 2 developed two valid and reliable video-based tests, based on the recommendations of Study 1. As match broadcast video is the most common video-based testing method for officials, it was compared with 360° VR to assess decision-making accuracy. Both 360° VR and match broadcast video-based tests demonstrated construct validity and high reliability (r = 0.89). Stronger ecological validity was evident in 360° VR than match broadcast, as participants rated 360° VR to be more representative of in-game decision-making processes. Study 3 aimed to determine the relationship between decision-making accuracy in both video-based tests (360° VR and match broadcast) and in-game of elite Australian football umpires, given that this limitation of the research was identified in Study 1. Study 3 used validated video-based tests from Study 2. There were no significant relationships observed for decision-making accuracy between in-game and video-based testing. Studies 2 and 3 provide findings on testing, however it is unclear whether 360° VR or match broadcast is more effective for developing decision-making. Study 4 assessed the effectiveness of a video-based training program using 360° VR or match broadcast to develop decision-making in amateur Australian football umpires using a randomised control study design. Decision-making was assessed using the valid and reliable tests of Study 2 before, immediately following, and one month following training (retention test). The 360° VR group exhibited significantly higher decision-making accuracy (p < 0.05) than the control group at retention testing, with no between-group differences observed for the match broadcast group. Participants rated 360° VR as more relevant and enjoyable than match broadcast. In summary, this thesis aimed to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of 360° VR as a video-based testing and training tool in Australian football umpires. Although 360° VR and match broadcast appear to have strong construct validity and reliability, currently, there is limited transfer to in-game performance. Further, based on these results, it is not definitive whether 360° VR is a more effective training tool than match broadcast. The findings of this thesis indicate 360° VR may be more ecologically valid than match broadcast and warrants further investigation.

Csikszentmihalyi (1975) introduced the flow concept, involving total absorption in the task, confidence, and control, with effortless, automatic movement. Flow has nine dimensions that Stavrou and Zervas (2004) divided into five antecedents (challenge-skill balance, clear goals, unambiguous feedback, total concentration on the task, sense of control) and four concomitant dimensions (action-awareness merging, loss of self-consciousness, time transformation, and autotelic experience). Loss of self-consciousness and time transformation have similarities to phenomena often reported in hypnotic trance states. To examine whether the experience of these phenomena in hypnosis enhanced flow state, I performed three studies. In Study 1, I evaluated whether a hypnotic state facilitates flow and enhances performance via its concomitant dimensions and whether the trancework component of traditional hypnosis (TH), compared with neutral hypnosis (NH), is crucial, with 20 golfers, who performed putting under controlled conditions. In Study 2, I examined the effect of two hypnosis techniques, regression (RE) and future progression (FP) on golf putting performance and flow state with 25 golfers. Both studies had the same structure. I used the Waterloo-Stanford Group C Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (WSGC) to match participants into conditions. Golfers performed 56 4m test putts at pre-test and post-test. I measured radial error of each putt and number of putts holed. Then they completed the Flow State Scale-2 (FSS-2) at pre- and post-test. All participants undertook a 60-minute, face-to-face session, then listened to a recording of that session for seven days with different hypnotic suggestions in the RE and FP conditions. In Study 1, two-way mixed-design ANOVA revealed that TH reduced radial error and two dimensions of flow, sense of control and loss of self-consciousness, compared with NH. In Study 2, two-way mixed design ANOVA showed that the effect of FP was significantly larger than the effect of RE in facilitating global flow mainly due to the time transformation dimension, but performance was not enhanced. In Study 3, I investigated the effect of FP on flow and putting performance in competitions. Three male golfers participated in a single-case design (SCD) study, comprising six competition rounds in the Baseline Phase (BP) and six rounds in the Intervention Phase (IP). I recorded number of putts per round, percentage distance error, strokes gained putting, global flow state, and flow dimensions. Visual inspection and split-middle technique analysis of individual graphs indicated improvement in performance and flow of two golfers. I used narrative analysis to examine social validation questionnaire responses. Participants reported superior performance with more confidence and greater concentration after the hypnosis intervention. The findings of these three studies indicate that RE and FP hypnosis can be useful techniques to promote flow and improve performance. Further study is warranted to identify the most effective combination of hypnosis techniques to enhance, global flow state, flow dimensions, and performance.

In this thesis, I examined the impact on flow and shooting performance of imagery interventions designed to increase proposed antecedents of flow, illuminating mechanisms underlying the positive experience of flow in basketball players. Flow is a positive psychological state that is associated with high levels of enjoyment, intrinsic motivation, and performance, so athletes and coaches aim to optimize flow. Imagery is a powerful technique that has been shown to enhance performance and flow state in sport. Stavrou and Zervas (2004) proposed that five dimensions of flow are antecedents that can enhance the experience of flow. This thesis comprises three studies with parallel structure, using a pre-test, intervention, post-test study design. In pre-test and post-test, participants performed 40 shots (eight trials x five locations around the basketball key) at 4.5 metres (2-point) and 40 shots (same five angles) at 6.75 metres (3-point). In the Imagery condition, participants completed six 15-minute imagery sessions over two weeks, focusing on the designated antecedent dimension. The Video Placebo condition involved equivalent attention focused on watching video of basketball game competition. Participants were randomly assigned to conditions. I used Two-way Mixed-design ANOVA and Tukey post hoc tests to examine shooting performance and all nine flow dimensions in all three studies. In Study 1, I examined whether the imagery of three flow dimensions, challenge-skill balance (C-S balance), clear goals, and unambiguous feedback, enhanced flow states and increased shooting performance with 18 male and 8 female basketball players. The Flow Antecedents Imagery condition involved imagining clear goals and unambiguous feedback of shooting in an individualised C-S balance context. The Video Placebo condition involved equivalent time watching video of elite performers shooting in competition. Results indicated that the Flow Antecedents Imagery intervention enhanced the three targeted flow dimensions, C-S balance, clear goals, and unambiguous feedback, as well as global flow with significant interaction effects. The Flow Antecedents Imagery condition improved 2-point, 3-point, and total shooting significantly more than the Video Placebo condition. In Study 2, I examined the impact of an imagery intervention designed to increase total concentration on flow and performance with 18 male and 12 female basketball players. Flow is the feeling athletes get when they are totally absorbed in their sport, whether in training or competition. Thus, total concentration is a key antecedent dimension of flow. The Flow Antecedents Imagery condition involved imagining total concentration on shooting. The Video Placebo condition involved equivalent time watching video of game competition. Results indicated that the Flow Antecedents Imagery condition increased all nine flow dimensions and improved 2-point and total shooting significantly more than the Video Placebo condition. In Study 3, I examined the impact of an imagery intervention designed to increase sense of control on flow and performance with 16 male and 14 female basketball players. This involves imagining individuals feeling calm and confident during basketball shooting performance. The Flow Antecedents Imagery condition involved imagining feeling relaxed, calm, and confident while shooting. The Video Placebo condition involved equivalent time watching video of game competition. Results showed that the Imagery condition improved 2-, 3-point, and total shooting significantly more than the Video Placebo condition. Imagery of sense of control enhanced basketball-shooting performance, but significant pre-test differences interfered with effects of imagery on flow dimensions. In the three studies in this thesis, I found substantial evidence supporting the role of imagery of the five antecedents of flow as an effective technique for enhancing global flow state, flow state dimensions, and performance, which should promote further research on the antecedents of flow in sport.

The aim was to produce three quality publications including; a review of literature publication and two original studies designed to examine the effects of pressure on free-throw performance, particulary the phenomenon of choking, in the sport of basketball. Pressure when FT shooting is generally experienced by basketball players, irrespective of the level of participation, and resultant choking can affect game outcome and diminish personal enjoyment (Gómez, Lorenzo, Jiménez, Navarro, & Sampaio, 2015; Worthy, Markman, & Maddox, 2009). The theoretical framework for the current study was a triangulated approach by examining choking from multiple perspectives with the common focus on choking in the task of basketball free throw shooting. The combination of a traditional quantitative approach (Study 1) and a less traditional qualitative approach (Study 2) were used to potentially provide perspectives on choking to illuminate possible consistencies and inconsistencies in how choking is experienced. Study 1 was designed to capitalize on the depth of athletes’ knowledge using a small number of elite athletes and reflected a predominantly inductive logic. The findings of this study informed a deeper understanding of how basketball players typically deal with choking and potentially present new knowledge and strategies relevant to alleviate choking within and beyond the sport of basketball. The elements of knowledge, transfer and exchange, the process of acquiring, developing, sharing and applying knowledge was used to question how the results can inform practice in the ‘real world’. In keeping with triangulation, the insider perspective used in Study 1 was equivalent to a ‘bottom up’ explanation of choking. Conversely, Study 2 was designed to more actively control variables in a quasi-experimental manner and was linked in design to the results from Study 1. Study 2 was designed to examine the effects of physical exertion on choking in conjunction with psychological using a larger population of competitive recreational student-athletes and reflected a predominantly deductive logic. More specifically, the aim of the first study was to investigate ‘insider’ perspectives of elite basketball players regarding perceptions of pressure and the associated phenomenon of choking in basketball free-throw shooting. Seven elite basketball players (1 female and 6 males; Mage = 33.3, SD = 5.4) were recruited through snowball sampling. In-depth semi- structured interviews were conducted to enable participants to reflect on experiences of pressure and explanations of how to avoid choking. The data were thematically analysed, with six themes identified; choking definitions, antecedents, personality, automaticity, mental skills, and management strategies. The findings are discussed, especially in the context of mental skills, to reduce choking-susceptibility, and to recommended strategies for players, coaches and sport psychologists to consider when managing chronic choking. More specifically, the aim of the second study was to examine the influence of physical exertion and pressure as potential antecedents of choking in basketball free-throw shooting. A within-subjects design was implemented with 50 student-basketball players who completed 40 basketball free-throws in four manipulated conditions: higher pressure-running, higher pressure-no running, lower pressure-running, and lower pressure-no running. A repeated measure analysis of variance revealed that participants scored significantly lower in the higher-pressure conditions than the lower-pressure conditions. Furthermore, participants scored significantly higher in the no-running conditions compared to the running conditions. The current study was the first to examine the effects of physical exertion on performance in pressure situations. The applied implications of these results are discussed and tentative conclusions drawn for the relevance to players, coaches and sport psychologists. The participants in Study 1 provided unique insights based on their extensive experience performing under pressure at the highest levels of basketball. Participants were aware of the importance of mental skills but were not necessarily sufficiently informed or able to rectify choking without further assistance. The results of Study 2 contributed useful new information and insights into the link between physical exertion and choking. These results provide a new avenue for researchers interested in further examining physical exertion and fatigue as contributing to under-performance under pressure. Overall, the two studies broaden the knowledge regarding the triggers and underlying mechanisms of choking, and also enrich the strategies that athletes can use to optimise their performances. I expect that the current findings will be able to build capacity in assisting those players who experience difficulties in converting critical free-throws. Finally, the results of the current study assist athletes, coaches, and applied sport psychologists to better understand the deleterious effects of pressure in sport and suggest possible solutions to manage them.

Super Rugby is an international competition played in the southern hemisphere with participating teams required to undertake multiple travel during a season. This thesis investigated the direct and complex relationship between regular air travel and athletes’ psycho-physiological response and performance. The first two studies investigated the impact of travel on team performance during the first 21 years of the competition (1996-2006). Study 1 showed the predominant role of the away-match disadvantage in determine match results following the longest flights and greatest time zones shifts, whilst the results from study 2 suggests that fatigue related to long-haul travel and the increased physical demand of the game negatively impacted team performance measured using Key Performance Indicators. Study 3 was a socio-physiological analysis of all travel related issues and solutions, as reported by travel managers from eight Super Rugby teams. The results show that psychological and emotional well-being may take primacy over physiological wellness as team culture and cohesion may be as important as biological interventions in controlling the negative effects of travel on players’ performance and well-being. Studies 4 and 5 monitored players from four teams and investigated their individual response to long-haul trans-meridian travel, with a focus on sleep (study 4), wellness and performance (study 5). The results suggest that, although the effects of travel on individual performance appear to be limited, long-haul travel had a substantially negative impact on players’ sleep and wellness. Further studies should investigate the potential impact of sleep disruptions and reduced wellness on players’ general health and well-being. The findings of this thesis should be of interest to all coaches and supporting staff in sports that require international travel to compete.

This study systematically explored the outcomes and implementation processes of the School Sport Leadership Program (SSLP), which was integrated into some secondary schools in Melbourne, Australia. The main principle behind the SSLP was to train secondary school-aged students to become sport leaders, who deliver sporting activities to primary schools with the aim to encourage participation in sports and physical activities and develop their competencies. The overarching aim of this research was to evaluate the impact of the program utilising rigour methodology design, and to provide a comprehensive view of the developmental outcomes for the young people, as well as the program’s impact on the school community.

Attempts have been made to understand the complex dynamic relationships involved in team sports and explain the nature of successful performance. In sports, these components are particularly relevant because athletes often attribute peak performances and outcomes to psychological states such as team flow. This thesis focused on exploring team flow state as an independent construct whose dimensions need to be identified by research. The purpose of this thesis was to conceptualize team flow state and develop an inventory to measure it.

Sport coaches play a crucial role in contributing to individual and team performance. Unlike the scientific study of athlete development, scant attention has been paid to the intricacies of coach development across the full spectrum of coaching levels. In the current research the defining stage development characteristics of A, B and C license soccer (hereafter referred to as football) coaches in Australia and Malaysia, were interviewed about their development journey, especially dating back to their first involvement in football through to the present.

A low level of physical activity and sport participation among adolescents has been particularly evident over the past decade, and youth inactivity has become a significant public health issue that has attracted the attention of many researchers around the world (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015; World Health Organization, 2011). The purpose of this research project is to critically examine the major constraints and motivations in relation to physical activity and sport participation among male high school students who live in the city of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Using the hierarchical model of leisure constraints designed by Crawford, Jackson and Godbey (1991) and the motivational model developed by Frederick and Ryan (1993), this study explores the determinants of their physical activity and sport participation levels. Data were collected via a self-reported questionnaire completed by 909 male students aged 16–19 from Riyadh high schools in 2010–2011.

This thesis developed and validated the Role Strain Questionnaire for Junior Athletes (RSQ-JA), an instrument designed to measure the role strain junior elite athletes experience in their multiple life domains (e.g., school, sport, family and friendships). Results supported a 22-item five factor structure for the RSQ-JA. These factors reflected five components of role strain, namely; (i) overload in school, (ii) overload in sport and between roles, (iii) conflict, (iv) underload, and (v) ambiguity. The RSQ-JA therefore provides the first valid measure to assess the role strain associated with the dual careers of junior elite athletes.

The main objective of this thesis is to identify the most effective way of delivering imagery to athletes. Researchers have proposed that imagery effectiveness is affected by a number of factors, including the method used to deliver imagery. One type of imagery delivery, referred to as routine imagery (RI) in this thesis, has been used in many studies and applied settings (for a review, see Cooley, Williams, Burns, & Cumming, 2013) where the same scenario was imagined without any changes throughout the intervention period. Another method recently used in the literature, which is called progressive imagery (PI) in this thesis, is to implement various elements of imagery in a progressive way (Wakefield & Smith, 2012). In other words, in PI we start the imagery training programs with simple images, few objects, and little action, then create more complex situations by adding information in steps. Another alternative training method introduced in this thesis is retrogressive imagery (RETI), in which the process of PI is reversed.

The relationships that clients form with their practitioners can influence treatment outcomes. Researchers have shown in numerous healthcare professions including psychology and physiotherapy that caring and collaborative relationships can lead to positive psychological and physical treatment outcomes, and poor relationships can lead to negative outcomes. Within sport psychology, there are fewer studies on clientpractitioner relationships in comparison to other domains of psychology or healthcare. Researchers and practitioners have often favoured the investigation and application of mental skills (e.g., goal setting, imagery, self-talk) over the exploration and development of client-practitioner relationships. In the specific context of sport injury rehabilitation, there exist few studies or commentaries on client-practitioner relationships as interventions that can aid athletes’ recoveries, transitions, and returns to sport. The aim of this thesis was to explore the relationships psychologists and physiotherapists have with injured athlete-clients and how these practitioners collaborate in sport injury rehabilitation.

The aim of this dissertation was twofold. First, this thesis explored the role that working memory plays in children’s motor learning. Working memory is responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of information in the mind, and is the primary mechanism underpinning the conscious acquisition of motor knowledge. However, working memory is still developing throughout childhood and, therefore, it is possible that most (if not, all) motor information learnt during childhood occurs sub-consciously. Indeed, the results showed that a person’s working memory capacity influenced skill performance and learning. Children with larger working memory capacity had a greater tendency to test hypotheses (i.e., make alterations to technique) when performing a motor skill, were more likely to consciously control their movements as indicated by the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale, and were advantaged when verbal instructions were provided. Further, studies with adults showed that working memory capacity predicted both performance in a pressured situation and the amount of EEG coherence between the motor regions of the brain and the verbal-analytical and visuo-spatial regions. The second main aim of this dissertation investigated the influence that modified equipment had on children’s skill acquisition. As hypothesised, skill performance and learning was enhanced when using modified equipment (e.g., smaller racquets and lower compression balls) compared to using full-size equipment. Importantly, the use of modified equipment placed fewer demands on working memory during performance of a skill, which implies that it encourages an implicit mode of learning. Overall, this thesis contributes to the small but growing literature examining implicit motor learning in children and increases our understanding of the influence that working memory has on the acquisition of motor skills.

Imagery is widely used in performance enhancement in sport. Music is also used to enhance sports performance. In this thesis, I examined the role of relaxing and arousing music during imagery on subsequent sports performance in three linked studies.

The idea of mental toughness (MT) is bewitching. The construct is consistently associated with success and being able to overcome great difficulties while demonstrating dogged perseverance regardless of adversity (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2008; Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002). It is no wonder sport psychology researchers strive to understand how to develop and display MT. The increase in published research in this topic attests to the popularity of becoming mentally tough. A clear understanding of MT, what it does and does not enable athletes to do, however, has not yet arrived. The purpose of this thesis was to gain an understanding of MT, with specific attention paid to the relationship with stress/recovery imbalance (SRI).