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Copyright of Umsatzsteuer-Rundschau is the property of De Gruyter and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In business practice, there is a statement that creative accounting refers to actions within the scope of accounting law that are legally prohibited. In other words, it encompasses all bookkeeping activities that distort the financial and asset situation of an economic entity. This, therefore, contradicts the principle of a true and fair view mandated by the Accounting Act of September 29, 1994, which requires entities to present their financial results in accordance with their actual state. However, in the literature on the subject, these actions are not designated as creative accounting but as aggressive accounting. Furthermore, creative accounting is presented as a positive phenomenon in accounting systems. Hence, the diversity of interpretations of these terms in both the literature and business practice has become a basis for their systematization. The aim of this article is a comparative analysis of creative accounting and aggressive accounting, as well as presenting the results of original survey research regarding the knowledge and correct interpretation of these terms within the accounting community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Law Schools offer many experiential learning programs to law students. Law school experiential learning tends to be siloed, involving only law students, and does not cross disciplines to facilitate interprofessional education. Experiential learning involving both law and accounting students will benefit them throughout their careers as they will work together on teams to serve clients. Law students can participate in Low-Income Taxpayer Clinics ("LITC"), where students represent clients in tax disputes with the IRS. Accounting students can participate in Volunteer Income Tax Assistance ("VITA") programs, preparing tax returns and helping clients with tax compliance. Once law and accounting students start to practice, tax compliance and tax representation are intertwined and are not siloed between law and accounting. To help students experience this interdisciplinary relationship, law schools and accounting programs need to create experiential learning opportunities where law and accounting students work together. Cornell University has developed a program to help facilitate interprofessional learning between law and accounting students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Socialiniai Tyrimai is the property of Vilnius University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The purpose of this article. The purpose of the paper is to compare and assess provisions on premises for recognizing tax books as kept not compliant to the regulations in the tax law and accountancy law as well as to discuss the possibility of using the tax judgments on this issue in the interpretation of compliant account books in the accountancy law. The research hypothesis is as follows: The tax judgments on the premises for recognizing tax books as kept not compliant may be also used directly for the interpretation of compliancy of account books in the accountancy law. Methodology. The descriptive study including critical attitude to the legal acts and literature was used to solve the research problem. The result of the research. Both the tax law and accountancy law comprise the rules for recognizing tax books (account books) to be compliant to the regulations. The tax law uses the terms of the reliability and correctness. The Accountancy Act law uses the terms of the reliability, error-free, verifiable manner and on an on-going basis. Although definitions of reliability are very similar, as the analysis shows, the character of reliability of tax books is not always the same as for account books. The judgments in the field of interpretation of the reliability for tax purposes may not always be used for accounting purposes. The term correctness in the Tax Ordinance does not always correspond to the terms: error-free, verifiable manner and on an on-going basis in the Accountancy Act. So, the tax judgment concerning correctness of the tax book from the tax law cannot be directly applied into the interpretation of such terms as error-free, verifiable manner and on an on-going basis in the accountancy law. The paper additionally proposes some changes to the tax law concerning the unreliability of tax books, as well as changes to the Accountancy Act. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the impact of Financial Fair Play (FFP) on clubs' finances and on the relationship between them and clubs' sporting outcomes in the Spanish league. To this end, financial ratios and accounting variables obtained from the clubs' own annual accounts, published from 2004 to 2019, are analysed, and the Mann–Whitney test is used to describe which differences are significant. The objective is threefold: firstly, we describe the financial/accounting structures of Spanish league football clubs, showing how both their financial statements and ratios have evolved after the application of this law, providing evidence of whether FFP is an adequate tool to guarantee the long-term viability and sustainability of football clubs, as intended by the UEFA. Secondly, we show the relationship between financial/accounting performance and sporting results. Thirdly, the paper looks at whether FFP has impacted the gap between the top clubs and the rest. The results show that, after the implementation of FFP, clubs' financial/accounting health has improved, and a change in their efficiency in this regard can be observed. Although FFP is a tool that achieves the objective for which it was created, the possibility that the gap between the elite clubs and the rest may be increasing should not be ignored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is investigated that the manifestation of accounting policy of a certain level in the field of accounting is the establishment of regulatory limits, which are accounting and financial reporting, their enshrinement in legislative documents. It is noted that the implementation of international financial reporting standards in the country takes place in conditions and under the influence of specific economic, political, legal, and cultural factors. Regulators who have identified a typical list of aspects that affect the process of applying IFRS are analyzed. There are differences in the formation of economic indicators around the world, so the Law "On the National Program for Adaptation of Ukrainian Legislation to European Union Legislation", i.e. accounting of enterprises, is identified as one of the priority areas in which Ukrainian legislation was adjusted. The experience of EU countries in the organization of accounting is studied. It is determined that the recommendations for the annual financial statements in Poland should contain at least the balance sheet, income statement and additional information on the financial statements; provide true and reliable information about the assets, liabilities, financial condition, and profits or losses of the company; published by each company in the relevant national register of enterprises. In Ireland, tax differences arising from double taxation, pre-agreed payments for government-related losses, and other tax benefits such as trade losses, trade payments, production losses, and production payments are also recognized separately in tax reporting. It is noted that in European countries - Germany, Sweden, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Portugal - the calculation of taxable income under tax law is based on the same calculation methods that provide information on tax revenues and expenses in the accounting system and tax reporting only for a database of accountants. Recommendations have been developed to improve accounting in EU countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Creative accounting is considered to be a 21st-century phenomenon that has received increased attention after the worldwide economic crisis and budget deficits, particularly the prevention and detection of accounting manipulation. Creative accounting is a practice that influences financial indicators by using accounting knowledge and rules that do not explicitly violate accounting policies, rules, and laws. The main purpose for implementing creative accounting is to show the financial position desired by the company management; stakeholders are informed of what the management wants them to perceive. Creative accounting can be used to manipulate financial information from its correct and accurate form by exploiting existing rules or, in many cases, ignoring one or more rules. Therefore, the methodology of the present work contributes to the existing literature by systematically reviewing the impacts of creative accounting determinants on financial reporting quality, especially in the banking sector. In this review, we describe and critically analyze previous relevant works to identify and assess the relationship between the constructs addressed in the study. In conclusion, this study offers insight for academia, researchers, and practitioners on determining creative accounting practices and their influences on fraudulent financial reporting between 2015 and 2020. Lastly, the present study contributes to the existing information by conducting new research on creative accounting determinants to enhance the quality of financial reporting and, therefore, help professionals to improve practices within the profession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article analyzes the historical process and factors contributing to the formation and development of the substance over form principle in both domestic and global accounting practice, its impact on doing business in specific countries and in international business. The organization and maintenance of accounting is based on a set of accounting principles that should ensure that economic events are properly accounted for and, as a result, converted into financial statements, which serve as a source of information for management decisions by various users of financial and economic information, international entities among them. Among these principles we can name the one of the substance over form. The philosophical basis for defining and applying the substance over form principle has been studied. It is discovered that the definition of the substance over form principle combines dialectically incompatible concepts. Namely, a set of internal, stable and defining links reflecting the main features and development trends of objects and processes (in this case, accounting and financial reporting in business transactions) prevails over the mode of existence and expression of meaning, organization and structure of accounting and financial statements. Such a combination of dialectically incompatible categories may lead to different interpretations of the substance of accounting records and, as a result, of the content of the financial statements. Cases of applying and using the substance over the form principle both in normative documents and in real-life accounting are considered. The main advantages and disadvantages of the application of the substance over form principle in the theory and practice of accounting while performing financial and economic activities and doing international business are analyzed. The research has shown that the application of the substance over form principle increases subjectivity in accounting and is largely determined by the qualifications of the accountant doing professional judgment and their moral and ethical qualities. The main causes of conflict situations while applying the substance over form principle are identified and ways to overcome the existing contradictions arising in the process of reflecting economic events in accounting between their legal (documentary) design and economic content are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inconsistencies of the accounting policy in business enterprise health care institutions with the legal and regulatory requirements, and the imperatives for forming the accounting policy of medical institutions in the new conditions of their reforms are determined by exploring their accounting procedures. The specifics of payment of value added tax by medical institutions are analyzed. Scientific-medical recommendations on accounting policy improvements with respect to the accounting of liabilities, including value added tax, are substantiated. The essential characteristic of the definition «related party» is given in keeping with the standards of accounting and tax law, accounting of transactions with related parties, with providing recommendations on the accounting of related parties. Methodical provisions on the accounting policy of incomes, stocks and expenses, pertaining to the classification and evaluation of incomes from medical services are specified. The structure of management report compiled by business entities, including medical institutions, is specified, with demonstrating that the process involved in the compilation of report is conditional on the accounting data and judgement of the management personnel, realized through the accounting policy. Based on an analytical review of methods for the compilation of report on monetary flows generated by operational activities (direct and indirect method), it is proposed that medical institutions should use indirect method as more informative one for users of financial reporting. The necessity to form information about incomes, expenses, financial results, assets and liabilities of reporting segments and its disclosure in the financial reporting is demonstrated. Recommendations on organization of an effective system for internal control of health care institutions are developed, with outlining the main areas of its organizational support in view of preventing risky events. The procedure for forming information required for the compilation of reports on management, monetary flows, and reports by segments, which is supposed by comply with all the essential aspects of a selected conceptual framework of financial reporting is shown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In modern conditions, to ensure the progressive development of accounting, it is necessary to improve its basic foundations, one of the elements of which is the concept of «subject of accounting». Taking into account the lack of unity in views among scientists on this concept and the significant changes that have occurred in recent years in the national accounting system, it is necessary to improve the position regarding the understanding of this concept and its clarification. The purpose of the article is to describe the subject of accounting in accordance with national legislation and IFRS and determine the directions for the development of the basic foundations of accounting. The main reasons for the lack of unity in the views of scientists regarding the understanding of the essence of the subject of accounting have been grounded. The need to differentiate the subject of accounting as a practical activity and as a science has been noted. The subject of accounting as a practical activity is what is accounted for (transactions, events and conditions). The subject of accounting as a science is practical, theoretical, meta-theoretical, methodological and organizational aspects of the functioning of the accounting system and the impact of accounting information on users. The existing approaches of scientists to the selection of the subject of accounting have been analyzed and the absence of their application at the level of national accounting legislation has been identified. The procedure for the formation of the subject of accounting at the present stage of the development of the national accounting system has been disclosed. The subject of accounting has been described based on the provisions of national accounting legislation. The subject of accounting has been described based on the provisions of international financial reporting standards. The necessity of including conditions as one of the elements of the accounting subject has been grounded. The reasons for the need for a deeper study of the subject of accounting based on the development of the theory of accounting reflection has been disclosed. The result of such research should not be the invention of another concept of the subject of accounting, but it should be more detailed and scientific description based on the application of new theoretical constructs as elements of the theory of accounting reflection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista del ICDT is the property of Instituto Colombiano de Derecho Tributario and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article focuses on tax consolidation regime in the corporate tax that generates the highest revenue. It mentions legal nature, without attending to proposals of Fiscal Policy or to questions economic, which, at times, makes it difficult for him to understand the legislator's reasons for structuring the special tax regime. It also mentions identification between accounting consolidation and its standards and fiscal consolidation.

We offer here the psychological attraction approach to accounting and disclosure rules, regulation, and policy as a program for positive accounting research. We suggest that psychological forces have shaped and continue to shape rules and policies in two different ways: (I) good rules for bad users — rules and policies that provide information in a form that is useful for users who are subject to bias and cognitive processing constraints; and (2) bad rules — superfluous or even pernicious rules and policies that result from psychological bias on the part of the "designers" (managers, users, auditors, regulators, politicians, or voters). We offer some initial ideas about psychological sources of the use of historical costs, conservatism, aggregation, and a focus on downside outcomes in risk disclosures. We also suggest that psychological forces cause informal shifts in reporting and disclosure regulation and policy, which can exacerbate boom-bust patterns in financial markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We evaluate the impact of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) on shareholders by studying the lobbying behavior of investors and corporate insiders in order to affect the final implemented rules under SOX. Investors lobbied overwhelmingly in favor of strict implementation of SOX, while corporate insiders and business groups lobbied against strict implementation. We identify firms most affected by the law as those whose insiders lobbied against strict implementation. Such firms appear to be characterized by agency problems, rather than motivated by concerns over compliance costs. Cumulative stock returns during the five and a half months leading up to SOX passage were approximately 7% higher for corporations whose insiders lobbied against SOX disclosure-related provisions than for similar non-lobbying firms, consistent with an expectation that SOX would reduce agency problems. Analysis of returns in the post-passage implementation period suggests that investors' positive expectations with regards to the effects of these provisions were warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A discussion is presented of the article "Regulation and Bonding: The Sarbanes-Oxley Act and the Flow of International Listings" published elsewhere in this issue. The U.S. corporate accounting law is controversial because it applies both to U.S. corporations and foreign companies whose stocks are listed on U.S. stock exchanges. The number of those companies has gradually decreased since reaching a peak in the 1990s, leading to charges the Act has made U.S. exchanges less competitive with foreign markets. The research suggests that the foreign companies who delisted from U.S. exchanges were smaller firms to whom the extra accounting costs required by Sarbanes-Oxley were a significant factor. If the stringency of U.S. securities law does screen foreign companies wishing to sell stocks in the U.S., this may actually be of benefit to the financial system.

The article presents a discussion of "Marking to Market: Panacea or Pandora's Box," an article published elsewhere in this issue. The contribution made by that article to the ongoing debate over accounting standards is praised. Accounting theory, however, must always be balanced against the reality that not all parties in an economic model have an interest in the presentation of accurate data, indeed, that the contrary is often true. The article under discussion assumed that in mark to market accounting, an illiquid market results in losses no matter what action is taken. If everyone sells, prices fall, if an exception holds an asset, a paper loss must be placed on its financial statement. Mark to market accounting in practice is not as restrictive as it is in theory. It is likely that theoretical arguments on accounting standards will always encounter that same obstacle.

New defined-benefit pension accounting rules are likely to negatively impact financial statements, debt covenants, and stock prices, and give plan sponsors the incentive to seek less volatile pension asset allocations. These new accounting rules will only provide additional incentives for managers to freeze, reduce, or terminate defined-benefit plans. Financial service professionals and their clients will need to assess alternatives to traditional defined-benefit plans as well as consider the potential impact of the new rules on stock prices in their investment portfolios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines Statement of Financial Accounting Standards 142 adoption decisions, focusing on the trade-off between recording certain current goodwill impairment charges below the line and uncertain future impairment charges included in income from continuing operations. We examine several potentially important economic incentives that firms face when making this accounting choice. We find evidence suggesting that firms' equity market concerns affect their preference for above-the-line vs. below-the-line accounting treatment, and firms' debt contracting, bonus, turnover, and exchange delisting incentives affect their decisions to accelerate or delay expense recognition. Our study contributes to the accounting choice literature by examining managers' use of discretion when adopting a mandatory accounting change and by developing and testing explicit cross-sectional hypotheses of the determinants of firms' preferences for immediate below-the-line versus delayed above-the-line expense recognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A discussion is presented of the article "Accounting Discretion in Fair Value Estimates: An Examination of SFAS 142 Goodwill Impairments," by Anne Beatty and Joseph Weber, in this issue. The author examines the study conducted by Beatty and Weber of companies that make use of Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) 142. The author summarizes the study's results and discusses the implications of subjective accounting decisions upon shareholders. Issues with limiting variable factors in statistic modeling are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Business Consultant / Poslovni Konsultant is the property of FINconsult Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista E-mercatoria is the property of Universidad Externado de Colombia, Departamento de Derecho Comercial and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper briefly traces the evolution of the impact that activities of accounting regulatory bodies have had on financial accounting research during the last two decades. It analyzes the continuing erosion of the link between accounting research and regulations and the adverse effect of that erosion on empirical studies. Regulators, authors and editors of scholarly accounting journals may share responsibility for this trend. Some suggestions are offered on how to reverse this trend and how to better link empirical and analytical studies to some of the concerns which motivated earlier studies. Policy makers may then be provided with evidence to support their regulatory activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses how small businesses should deal with Generally Accepted Accounting Practices (GAAP) and how they are affected by preparation costs. The article describes how the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) views financial statement requirements and discusses whether small firms can fairly be held to the same standards as larger firms. The article names 'standards overload' as a side effect from FASB requirements, stating that they are mostly relevant for larger firms but that smaller firms feel the pressure as well. The article states that small firms sometimes must hire outside accountants to compile financial statements because the GAAP requirements are too complex.

This paper studies the FASB's first eighty-five standards to determine if implementations are ad hoc, or if there is a structure underlying the FASB's implementation practices. The study finds, on balance, that there is a structure in the Board's use of alternative approaches but not a uniform approach and that there are inconsistencies. The authors recommend that the Board formulate principles of implementation to avoid inconsistencies and to make users aware of the potential effects of contemplated changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the conceptual framework project of the U.S. Financial Accounting Standards Board, the most expensive, time-consuming, lengthy and profound program of the Board. It is estimated that nearly 40 percent of the Board's resources were devoted to the project in both 1979 and 1980. The author believes that the project will have a greater impact on the development of accounting standards than any event in the profession. In the conceptual framework, the Board aims to establish the objectives of financial reporting, the definitions of elements that should be reported on financial statements, the attributes of those elements that should be measured, the methods of measuring the attributes, the qualitative characteristics the measurements must have, and the location of that information in financial reports.

The article considers the factors that may influence the long-range growth of the accounting profession. The biggest challenge for the profession is the anticipation of the changes that lie ahead and the definition of an appropriate role in the future. The profession has taken steps toward self-regulation but the lack of product differentiation has emphasized advertising, solicitation and fee cutting as the main elements of competition. The present accounting model has not changed much despite an increased attention to cash flow. It is still oriented toward income determination, which is compatible with the free-market ethic.

This article focuses on developments on accounting in the U.S. The congressional interest in accounting is not likely to subside even if significant changes are made. Additionally, the Securities and Exchange Commission can be expected to exercise its oversight responsibility even more than in the past. While Washington's scrutiny of accounting and auditing practices is directed at publicly owned companies, many of the resulting changes will ultimately affect generally accepted accounting principles and auditing standards for all companies.

Copyright of Vie et Sciences de l'Entreprise is the property of ANDESE and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The primary focus of this paper is to present an inclusive analysis of the regulation of the accounting profession in the Republic of Macedonia, with a specific accent given to the advantages and disadvantages created by the current accounting regulative. The paper strives to create a clear image of the current situation of the accounting profession in Macedonia, as this profession is one of the core influencers of corporate management. Additionally, the paper analysis the directions in which the improvement of the accounting profession should go, in order harmonize its regulation with the regulation of the same profession in developed countries. Through the analysis of the regulation currently in place, its implementation in practice and a small number of papers addressing this issue, the paper tries to identify the perspectives and challenges that stakeholders in the accounting profession encounter, such as professional accountants, entities using accounting services, public revenue offices, legislators and others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses various topics related to corporate accounting in the U.S. Topics include a joint letter by Center for Audit Quality (CAQ), Council of Institutional Investors (CII), and CFA Institute to the U.S. House regarding their opposition to any legislation that would erode Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes Oxley-Act; and articles within the issue on topics including internal ethics in accounting, and practical business decisions.

The article discusses U.S. Securities & Exchange Commission accounting enforcement rules. It states that a case of MagnaChip Semiconductor Corporation and Margaret Hye-Ryoung Sakai CPA, wherein the Commission published an order instituting public administrative and cease-and-desist proceedings, and mentions that MagnaChipis a semiconductor company located in South Korea, whose employees were engaging in impro[per accounting practices. It notes role of internal controls in accounting.

This article represents solely the views of its author. It is based on a transcript of a speech delivered at the international workshop on "Which accounting regulation for Europe's economy and society?" organised under the auspices of the European Parliament in Strasbourg, on 20 May 2015, in tribute to Mr Jérôme Haas (1963-2014), first chairman of the Accounting Standards Authority of France (ANC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is based upon the transcript of a speech given at the international workshop on "Which accounting regulation for Europe's economy and society?" held at the European Parliament, Strasbourg, on May 20, 2015, in tribute to Mr Jérôme Haas (1963-2014), first chairman of the Accounting Standards Authority of France (ANC). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Criterio Libre is the property of Revista Criterio Libre and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Purpose This study aims to examine the perceptions of accounting practitioners and users about implementation challenges with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs) at the pre-implementation stage. Under institutional pressures, India conveyed its decision to implement IFRS beginning 1 April 2016, despite initial reluctance to adopt IFRS. It specifically explores the responses of accounting professionals (preparers) and the banking industry professionals (users) in India to challenges in IFRS implementation, rather than more widely researched dimensions of IFRS implementation such as reasons for adoption, experience effects and diversity in practice.Design/methodology/approach A quantitative research approach was adopted, using a questionnaire survey that provided 192 responses from accounting practitioners and banking professionals working in India.Findings The findings convey IFRS implementation preparedness perceptions of participants with respect to education, training and information technology (IT) infrastructure. Respondents acknowledged the efforts and capability of the accounting body, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, but expressed reservations about training, cost, interpretation, IT infrastructure and staffing. The accounting practitioners and the users have similar perspectives on the subject of awareness and preparedness challenges of IFRS implementation.Practical implications The study heightens awareness of the challenges facing jurisdictions who express initial reluctance, although they ultimately decide to adopt IFRS on account of institutional pressures. The analysis suggests that the International Accounting Standards Board should increase focus on implementation issues, in addition to updating and making IFRSs.Originality/value The study is distinct from the studies in abundance on the creation of accounting standards, implementation benefits and their implication in a specific geography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Zeitschrift für Abgaben-, Finanz- und Steuerrecht is the property of Verlag Oesterreich GmbH and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)