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Today, most wood adhesives are prepared from fossil-based polymers and contain hazardous components, e.g., formaldehyde. With the growing environmental concern there is an urge to develop bio-based and harmless substitutes. In this study, the ambition is to explore and valorise hemicelluloses, a biproduct from pulping, as the main component in wood adhesives. Wood adhesives were prepared from different sources: xylan from beech wood, hemicellulose-rich liquids obtained from hydrolysis of hardwood, and ultrafiltered softwood hemicellulose recovered from the process water of a thermomechanical pulp mill. Hemicelluloses themselves do not exhibit sufficient bonding performance, but excellent bond strength and water resistance were obtained in combination with poly(vinyl amine). It was also demonstrated that chitosan can be used as a bio-based amino-functional alternative to synthetic poly(vinyl amine), with similar or superior properties. Hemicelluloses alone show insufficient water resistance, but hemicelluloses in combination with chitosan exhibit exceptionally good bonding performance, especially regarding water resistance. Adhesives prepared from liquids rich in hardwood- and softwood hemicelluloses showed similar bond strength in combination with amino-functional polymers (poly(vinyl amine) and chitosan), regardless of their differences in structure. The current study constitutes an example on how sidestreams from the pulp industry in combination with chitosan can be used to substitute fossil-based materials in the quest for a more sustainable society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dendritic polymers are highly branched, globular architectures with multiple representations of functional groups. These nanoscale organic frameworks continue to fascinate researchers worldwide and are today under intensive investigation in application-driven research. A large number of potential application areas have been suggested for dendritic polymers, including theranostics, biosensors, optics, adhesives and coatings. The transition from potential to real applications is strongly dictated by their commercial accessibility, scaffolding ability as well as biocompatibility. A dendritic family that fulfills these requirements is based on the 2,2-bismethylolpropionic acid (bis-MPA) monomer. This critical review is the first of its kind to cover most of the research activities generated on aliphatic polyester dendritic architectures based on bis-MPA. It is apparent that these scaffolds will continue to be in the forefront of cutting-edge research as their structural variations are endless including dendrons, dendrimers, hyperbranched polymers, dendritic-linear hybrids and their hybridization with inorganic surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant proteins, such as wheat gluten, constitute attractive raw materials for sustainable wood adhesives. In this study, alkaline water dispersions of the protein classes of wheat gluten, glutenin, and gliadin were used as adhesives to bond together wood substrates of beech. The aim of the study is to measure the tensile shear strength of the wood substrates to compare the adhesive performance of glutenin and gliadin and to investigate the influence of application method and penetration of the dispersions into the wood material. A sodium hydroxide solution (0.1 M) was used as dispersing and denaturing agent. Dispersions with different protein concentrations and viscosities were used, employing wheat gluten dispersions as references. Two different application methods, a press temperature of 110°C and a press time of 15 min, were employed. The tensile shear strength and water resistance of the wood substrates were compared, using a slightly modified version of the European Standard EN 204. The bond lines of the substrates were examined by optical microscopy to study the penetration and bond-line thickness. The results reveal that the adhesive properties of gliadin are inferior to that of both glutenin and wheat gluten, especially in terms of water resistance. However, the tensile shear strength and the water resistance of gliadin are significantly improved when over-penetration of the protein into the wood material is avoided, rendering the adhesive performance of gliadin equal to that of glutenin and wheat gluten. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poly(vinyl acetate), PVAc, adhesives are commonly used for wood bonding; however, they are fossil-based and the final products usually do not have a sufficient water resistance for more durable applications. In this study we prepared an adhesive formulation by grafting VAc from chitosan using emulsion polymerization, chitosan- graft -PVAc. Thereby, we could decrease the fossil-based content of the adhesive and at the same time significantly improve the water resistance. Chitosan by itself has very good bonding properties as a wood adhesive, especially regarding water resistance; however, very low solid contents of the adhesive formulation can be achieved due to a very high viscosity of chitosan adhesives. In our chitosan- graft -PVAc adhesives, we explored two chitosan samples with different molecular weights, by using as-received chitosan and hydrolyzing it to a lower molecular weight. The chitosan fractions in the adhesives prepared with a higher molecular weight chitosan were 15, 20 and 25 wt%. However, due to the high viscosity, a solid content higher than 17 wt% could not be achieved for these adhesives. Sufficient bond strengths were achieved when the adhesive was applied in 122 g/m2 solid spread rate. In order to decrease the viscosity, we used hydrolyzed chitosan, with a lower molecular weight, to allow for a higher adhesive solid content, 34 wt%, and for a higher chitosan fraction, 40 wt%. In the adhesive with 40 wt% chitosan and 17 wt% solid content, all VAc was grafted from chitosan. This decreased the molecular mobility of the chains, leading to a lower susceptibility to plastic creep in the adhesive which contributes to the final bond strength. The dry and wet strengths of the specimens bonded with adhesives containing chitosan were higher than the strength of the specimens bonded with the reference PVAc adhesive. [Display omitted] • Wood adhesives are prepared by grafting vinyl acetate from chitosan. • By the introduction of chitosan, the fossil content can be reduced by 40 %. • The water resistance of the PVAc adhesive is improved when chitosan is introduced. • A lower molecular weight chitosan allows for higher chitosan- and solid content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Wheat gluten, among other plant proteins, constitutes an attractive raw material for sustainable alternatives to today''s petroleum-based wood adhesives. Nevertheless, the bonding performance, and especially the water resistance, of these plant proteins need to be improved to turn them into competitors equal in merit to today''s petroleum-based products. The aim of this study was to investigate if mild hydrolysis or heat treatment of wheat gluten will improve its adhesive properties. Wheat gluten was hydrolyzed with the enzyme Alcalase (degree of hydrolysis 0.3–5.5%), or heat treated at different temperatures (50, 70, and 90°C) and varying time intervals (15min to 24h). Alkaline water dispersions of these modified wheat gluten samples were used as adhesives to bond together wood substrates of beech at a press temperature of 110°C and a press time of 15min. The tensile shear strengths of the substrates were measured for comparison of bond strength and resistance to cold water. The substrates were evaluated according to a slightly modified version of the European Standard EN 204. Lower levels of hydrolysis (0.3–0.6%) and most of the heat treatments at 90°C resulted in improved bond strength and water resistance. Nevertheless, the adhesive properties, especially the water resistance, need to be further improved to fulfill today''s requirements for wood adhesives. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The tensile strength of beech substrates bonded with dispersions of alkali-denatured soy protein isolate (SPI) and wheat gluten (WG) was measured for comparison of bond strength and resistance to cold water. The proteins were denatured with 0.1M NaOH (pH 13). Dispersions with different protein concentration and viscosity were investigated. The adhesive properties were studied at different press temperatures (90, 110, and 130°C) and press times (5, 15, and 25min). Two types of application methods were used in order to overcome the problem with different viscosity of the dispersions. In addition, SPI was denatured at two different pH levels (approximately 10 and 13) and with two different concentrations of salt (158μM and 0.1M), in order to compensate for the different isoelectric points of the proteins. The adhesive properties of WG powder with different particle sizes were also compared. The tensile strengths of the wood substrates were measured according to somewhat simplified versions of the European Standards EN 204 and EN 205. The bond lines were studied with light microscopy. The results indicate that the adhesive properties of SPI are superior, particularly with regard to water resistance. However, the water resistance of WG was to some extent improved when starved adhesive joints could be avoided. Similar tensile strength values were obtained for the dispersions of alkali-denatured SPI regardless of pH or salt concentration. No apparent difference in adhesive strength was observed for the WG dispersions from powder with different particle sizes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Locust bean gum, derived from the carob tree, was evaluated as a biobased adhesive in particleboard manufacturing, investigating the effect of adhesive amount, mat moisture content, and process parameters such as temperature and time. Single-layer particleboards prepared with locust bean gum showed that effective hydration of the polymer chains is necessary to achieve satisfactory interactions with wood and thus yield a sufficient particleboard strength. A mat moisture content below 30 % resulted in weak particleboards, which easily broke immediately after pressing. With increasing mat moisture content, while keeping the adhesive amount constant, the internal bond strength was increased. Moreover, with constant mat moisture contents (40 %), the internal bond strength increased when the adhesive amount was increased, even though not proportionally. With an increase from 9 % to 18 % adhesive, the internal bond strength was increased by more than 100 %. However, with a further increase in adhesive content from 18 % to 36 %, the increase in internal bond strength was statistically insignificant. Even with high mat moisture contents (35–45 %), larger lab-scale particleboards had internal bond strength that fulfilled standard requirements for P2 boards, commonly used for furniture in dry conditions (SS EN 312), when the pressing time was long enough (75 s/mm) to allow for water and vapors to be removed before releasing the pressure. Using biopolymers as adhesives, without extensive chemical modification and hazardous crosslinkers, could lead to a more benign and sustainable particleboard production. Since the chemistry and setting/curing processes of biopolymer-based adhesives differ from those of the fossil-based adhesives used today, increased understanding of how production parameters affect the properties of the particleboards prepared with biopolymers may pave the way for their better utilization in this field. [Display omitted] • Locust bean gum is demonstrated as an adhesive for wood particleboards. • Effective hydration of the adhesive is crucial for satisfactory bonding performance. • Low pressing temperature (150 °C) resulted in high particleboards strength. • No steam blistering despite larger board dimensions and high mat moisture content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wood adhesives are mainly prepared from polymers derived from petroleum-based resources. With the increasing concern for the environment, it is necessary to find alternatives derived from bio-based resources that can replace petroleum-based polymers. To enable this transition it is important that the adhesive properties in terms of bond strength, water resistance and heat resistance are similar, and that the alternative can compete in terms of cost. Hemicelluloses are a byproduct from the pulp industry. From environmental and economic perspectives it is preferable to utilize all components from wood and decrease the amount of low-value byproducts. In this study, hemicelluloses are suggested to be used as binders in wood adhesives, why water dispersions of xylan have been prepared and evaluated. However, xylan itself cannot be used as a wood adhesive due to its limited bonding performance, especially regarding the water resistance. With the addition of dispersing agents, poly(vinyl alcohol) or poly(vinyl amine), and crosslinkers, such as glyoxal or hexa(methoxymethyl) melamine, the xylan dispersions demonstrate promising results. Wood veneers bonded with xylan dispersions and evaluated with ABES, Automated Bonding Evaluation System, demonstrate a good bond strength and surprisingly good water resistance. Several xylan dispersions fulfill the D1 and WATT 91 requirements for wood adhesives according to European Standards EN 204 and EN 14257, exhibiting good bond strength and heat resistance. Xylan dispersed in a poly(vinyl amine) solution also shows remarkable water resistance and reaches the threshold for the D2 criterion according to European Standard EN 204. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Gums can be used as binders for wood adhesives. [•] Locust bean gum dispersion fulfill the criteria for a D2 and WATT 91 wood adhesive. [•] Locust bean gum dispersions can be pressed at room temperature as well as at elevated temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Enzymatic hydrolysis or heat treatment of wheat gluten for enhanced adhesive properties. [•] SE-HPLC and 13C NMR analyses of modified wheat gluten. [•] Structural changes correlated with tensile shear strength measurements of wood substrates. [•] Mild hydrolysis: improved bond strength due to unfolding. [•] Heat treatment: improvement due to a combination of unfolding and polymerization. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Soy protein isolate and wheat gluten were studied to evaluate their wood bonding performance. A multiscale approach was employed, combining tensile shear strength measurements, optical microscopy, and adhesion measurements at the nanoscale using atomic force microscopy. Tensile shear strength measurements were performed on beech wood substrates bonded with either dispersions of soy protein isolate or wheat gluten to investigate bond strength and water resistance. The results reveal a significant difference in bond strength between the plant proteins. Soy protein isolate is superior to wheat gluten, especially regarding water resistance, both under acidic and alkaline conditions. Cross sections of the wood substrates were examined by optical microscopy to study protein penetration and bond line thickness. The results indicate that a proper bond can be obtained using lower amount of soy protein isolate than wheat gluten. Atomic force microscopy in colloidal probe mode was used to investigate nanoscale adhesion between cellulose and solvent cast protein films. The results show that adhesion between the plant proteins and the wood component is important for the bonding performance. Further, it is shown that the results from atomic force microscopy and tensile shear strength measurements display the same trend demonstrating that the bonding properties translates well spanning regimes from the macro- to the nanoscale. The presented multiscale approach is shown to have great potential and may be used in the future to predict properties at different length scales in the design and formulation of new bioadhesives. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In this work, the objective was to synthesize a compatibilizer that can electrostatically adsorb onto cellulose fibers, in fiber-based composites, to enhance the interaction between the fibers and non-polar polymer matrices. This physical route to attach the compatibilizer onto and thereby modify a fiber surface is convenient since it can be performed in water under mild conditions. Polystyrene (PS) was used for the high molecular weight, non-polar, block and poly(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (PDMAEMA) was used as the polar block, which was subsequently quaternized to obtain cationic charges. The block copolymer self-assembles in water into cationic micelles and the adsorption to both silicon oxide surfaces and cellulose model surfaces was studied. The micelles spread out on the surface after heat treatment and contact angle measurements showed that the contact angles against water increased significantly after this treatment. AFM force measurements were performed with a PS probe to study the adhesive properties. The adhesion increased with increasing contact time for the treated surfaces, probably due to entanglements between the polystyrene blocks at the treated surface and the probe. This demonstrates that the use of this type of amphiphilic block copolymer is a promising route to improve the compatibility between charged reinforcing materials, such as cellulose-based fibers/fibrils, and hydrophobic matrices in composite materials. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]