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The experience of a mental disorder may affect the development of personality in multiple ways, but empirical evidence regarding psychopathology effects on personality development that persist after remission of the disorder is limited and inconsistent. In the longitudinal cohort TRacking Adolescents’ Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS), mental disorders during adolescence were assessed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview and parent-reported effortful control, fearfulness, and frustration at age 11 and age 19 through the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire. We found that adolescent mental disorders had small effects on personality change. Internalizing disorders predicted increases of fearfulness and frustration but hardly affected effortful control; externalizing disorders were unrelated to frustration and fearfulness but predicted a decrease of effortful control. Whereas fearfulness and frustration partially caught up after disorder remission, virtually all delay in effortful control was still present 2.9 years later, suggesting scarring effects.

Background Because of the widespread use of oral contraceptives (OCs) and the devastating effects of depression both on an individual and a societal level, it is crucial to understand the nature of the previously reported relationship between OC use and depression risk. Insight into the impact of analytical choices on the association is important when interpreting available evidence. Hence, we examined the association between adolescent OC use and subsequent depression risk in early adulthood analyzing all theoretically justifiable models. Methods Data from the prospective cohort study TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey, among women aged 13-25 years were used. Adolescent OC use (ages 16-19 years) was used as a predictor and major depressive disorder (MDD) in early adulthood (ages 20-25 years), as assessed by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV oriented Lifetime Depression Assessment Self-Report and the Composite International Diagnostic Interview, was used as an outcome. A total of 818 analytical models were analyzed using Specification Curve Analysis in 534 adolescent OC users and 191 nonusers. Results Overall, there was an association of adolescent OC use and an episode of MDD in early adulthood [median odds ratio (OR)(median) = 1.41; ORmin = 1.08; ORmax = 2.18, p < .001], which was driven by the group of young women with no history of MDD (ORmedian = 1.72; ORmin = 1.21; ORmax = 2.18, p < .001). Conclusions In summary, adolescent OC use was associated with a small but robust increased risk for experiencing an episode of MDD, especially among women with no history of MDD in adolescence. Understanding the potential side effects of OCs will help women and their doctors to make informed choices when deciding among possible methods of birth control.

The experience of a mental disorder may affect the development of personality in multiple ways, but empirical evidence regarding psychopathology effects on personality development that persist after remission of the disorder is limited and inconsistent. In the longitudinal cohort TRacking Adolescents’ Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS), mental disorders during adolescence were assessed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview and parent-reported effortful control, fearfulness, and frustration at age 11 and age 19 through the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire. We found that adolescent mental disorders had small effects on personality change. Internalizing disorders predicted increases of fearfulness and frustration but hardly affected effortful control; externalizing disorders were unrelated to frustration and fearfulness but predicted a decrease of effortful control. Whereas fearfulness and frustration partially caught up after disorder remission, virtually all delay in effortful control was still present 2.9 years later, suggesting scarring effects.

Is it true that children turn into their parents? Adolescents often show characteristics and behaviors that resemble those of their parents. Particularly psychopathological symptoms and relationship behaviors are often observed to inadvertently continue from one generation to the next. But how are symptoms and behaviors between parents and adolescents transmitted during adolescence? And how can we explain possible intergenerational transmission – or non-transmission? The present dissertation sought to answer these questions. Using four longitudinal, multimethod studies, it provides insights into the intergenerational transmission of psychopathological symptoms and relationship quality across adolescence and young adulthood. The three overarching aims were: 1) to investigate how psychopathological symptoms and relationship behaviors are transmitted across adolescence and young adulthood, 2) to shed light on the direction of transmission effects between parents and adolescents, and 3) to provide insights into potential mechanisms involved in intergenerational transmission processes. The findings of this thesis highlight the importance of adolescence as a period in which intergenerational transmission processes play a role. Parental and adolescent psychopathological symptoms and relationship behaviors were generally consistently associated across adolescence and to some extent even into young adulthood, with both parent and adolescent effects involved. While negative parent-child interactions might explain why problem behaviors accumulate in some families, congruency between parents and children could help to break maladaptive patterns.

Is it true that children turn into their parents? Adolescents often show characteristics and behaviors that resemble those of their parents. Particularly psychopathological symptoms and relationship behaviors are often observed to inadvertently continue from one generation to the next. But how are symptoms and behaviors between parents and adolescents transmitted during adolescence? And how can we explain possible intergenerational transmission – or non-transmission? The present dissertation sought to answer these questions. Using four longitudinal, multimethod studies, it provides insights into the intergenerational transmission of psychopathological symptoms and relationship quality across adolescence and young adulthood. The three overarching aims were: 1) to investigate how psychopathological symptoms and relationship behaviors are transmitted across adolescence and young adulthood, 2) to shed light on the direction of transmission effects between parents and adolescents, and 3) to provide insights into potential mechanisms involved in intergenerational transmission processes. The findings of this thesis highlight the importance of adolescence as a period in which intergenerational transmission processes play a role. Parental and adolescent psychopathological symptoms and relationship behaviors were generally consistently associated across adolescence and to some extent even into young adulthood, with both parent and adolescent effects involved. While negative parent-child interactions might explain why problem behaviors accumulate in some families, congruency between parents and children could help to break maladaptive patterns.