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Chickpea is a key crop in sustainable cropping systems and for its nutritional value. Studies on agronomic and genetic influences on chickpea protein composition are missing. In order to obtain a deep insight into the genetic response of chickpeas to management in relation to agronomic and quality traits, a two-year field trial was carried out with eight chickpea genotypes under an organic and conventional cropping system. Protein composition was assessed by SDS-PAGE in relation to the main fractions (vicilin, convicilin, legumin, lectin, 2s-albumin). Crop response was highly influenced by year and presumably also by management, with a &minus, 50% decrease in grain yield under organic farming, mainly due to a reduction in seed number per m2. No effect of crop management was observed on protein content, despite significant differences in terms of protein composition. The ratio between the major globulins, 7s vicilin and 11s legumin, showed a negative relationship with grain yield and was found to be higher under organic farming. Among genotypes, black-seed Nero Senise was characterized by the highest productivity and water-holding capacity, associated with low lectin content. These findings highlight the importance of the choice of chickpea genotypes for cultivation under organic farming in relation to both agronomic performance and technological and health quality.

In a circular economy framework, the evaluation of waste by-product use as fertilizer is essential to promote sustainable agriculture. Olive oil wet pomace can be a valuable alternative as organic fertilizer on cereal crops. Aim of the study is to evaluate the effects of organic (with olive oil waste pomace) fertilization, on grain yield, protein and polyphenol content of emmer wheat grown in Southern Italy. Different amounts, time and amount of application of organic fertilizer were compared to a traditional mineral fertilizer treatment. The chemical analysis, mainly grain protein content and phenolic acids contents, were carried out on the hulled seeds. Agronomic traits showed that the application of olive wet pomace at 140 Mg ha−1 in the first year and 70 Mg ha−1 in the second year, gave the best grain yield than an annual amount application of 70 Mg ha−1. No difference between organic and mineral fertilization was observed when the latter was carried 1 or 2 years before, and the organic fertilization increased grain protein content respect to mineral one. Polyphenol content was not significantly affected by fertilization treatments, while ferulic acid in the emmer grain recently fertilized with wet pomace showed a higher content than emmer fertilized 2–3 years before.

The intensive agricultural practices are the main causes of soil organic matter decline that generates the desertification process, mainly in Mediterranean areas, characterized by a semi-desertic climate. The central aim of this work was to simulate and assess the consequences of different crop residue management in durum wheat cultivation in Basilicata region (Southern Italy). CropSyst model was applied in the 6 main traditional production areas of Basilicata of durum wheat for a total of 15 soil profiles. For this simulation study, 13 years of continuous wheat in 6 different management scenarios were simulated. The compared treatments were: Conventional, Conventional plus residues, Minimum Tillage, No-Tillage, Conservative and Conservative with rotation. The evaluated output variables were biomass and grain yield, water used and percolated, soil organic carbon content. Simulations covered a period over 13 years (from 2001 to 2013) using daily climatic data recorded by 6 weather stations located less than 30 km far from the soils used in the simulation. The highest yield production resulted in Lavello site, the lowest in Potenza one. Conventional management (residues burning, ploughing and supplemental soil tillage) ensured the best crop performance (3430 kg ha −1 ), comparable to the other treatments where the straw was left on the soil and highest if compared to the reduced input tillage and straw removal. Burning of straw caused a reduction of the soil organic carbon content (−137 kg ha −1 y −1 ), whereas the other practices allowed an increase in the soil carbon stock, especially when straw was left on the soil and ranging from 1756 kg ha −1 y −1 in conservative management to 86 kg ha −1 y −1 in minimum tillage. CropSyst model indicated an improvement in SOC under reduced and no tillage treatments, but the highest soil carbon stock enrichment was achieved when the straw was left on the soil. Anyway, the increment in SOC did not lead to an improvement in grain yield, and for this a financial support to the farmers is still necessary.

Twenty-five germplasm lines of Chenopodium quinoa , four of Chenopodium giganteum and one of Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae from different origins were evaluated for seed yield and morphological and quality traits in the southern Italy environment over a 2-year period. The aim was to select superior genotypes for production and quality traits that are well adapted to the Mediterranean climate. Significant variations were seen for all of the traits among these genotypes. Seed yield ranged from 0.11 t ha −1 to 3.05 t ha −1 , with higher yields for 10 Chilean lines. Seed protein ranged from 15.8% to 19.8%, and total dietary fibre ranged from 9.4% to 21.3%. Seed yellow pigment concentration ranged from 10 μg g −1 to 18 μg g −1 . Heritability estimates were relatively high for almost all of the traits considered, although the highest heritability was obtained for seed insoluble dietary fibre (0.94) and yellow pigment concentration (0.92). All of the morphological traits except ‘days to flowering’ and ‘days to maturity’ showed significant positive associations with seed yield, while the quality traits were negatively correlated with seed yield. The results indicate the superior genotypes that can be used directly as parents in future selection programmes for the development of high-yielding varieties that are well adapted to the Mediterranean environment.

Improvement of the energy balance and efficiency for reduced input of cropping systems is one of the main goals for the cultivation of energy crops. In this field study, two sugar crops for bioethanol production were cultivated under different soil tillage management (conventional; no tillage) and mineral nitrogen application (0, 75, 150 kg N ha−1): sweet sorghum and sugar beet. The energy performance and efficiency along the bioethanol supply chain were analysed and compared. Both of these crops showed good growth adaptation to the different soil and nitrogen management, and thus the energy return, resource and energy efficiencies were significantly improved in the low-input system. Sweet sorghum provided better responses in terms of water and nitrogen use efficiency for biomass accumulation, as well as its energy yield and net gain, compared to sugar beet, whereas sugar beet showed higher energy efficiency than sorghum. According to these data, both of these crops can be cultivated in a Mediterranean environment with low energy input, which guarantees good crop and energy performances for biofuel strategy planning.

A 2-year conservation agriculture experiment was conducted in Southern Italy on durum wheat continuous cropping. Aim of the research was to assess the durum wheat productivity and grain quality in reduced soil tillage systems, according to conservation agriculture principles. The interactions among experimental treatments and climate revealed a close relationship among grain yield, grain quality and wheat growth conditions. Specifically, conventional tillage (CT, plowing and 2 disc harrowing) showed in the 2-year period higher grain production than reduced tillage treatments, minimum (MT, 1 disc harrowing) and No tillage (NT), especially for good crop water availability (3.29 t ha–1 of grain yield in CT, 2.67 in MT and 2.54 in NT). The amount of rainfall (above the average in both years) and its distribution in the growing seasons (more regular in the first year) strongly influenced wheat-grain quality indices (11.97% of protein content in the first year and 9.82% in the second one). Also, the wheat quali...

Most studies on radiation use efficiency (RUE) have focussed only on the relationship between intercepted solar radiation and biomass accumulation, without considering the intermediate steps that underlie the development of the crop. The present study aims to estimate the RUE of sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.) under different deficit irrigation schemes, with the introduction of an intermediate step at the leaf scale, the net photosynthesis rate (P N ), and the exploration of the relationship between RUE and P N . The linear relationship between intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (iPAR) and total plant dry matter was defined during the vegetative phase, and a single value of RUE (2.08 g MJ −1 ) was predictive of biomass accumulation; the curvilinear response of RUE with respect to P N explained one of the hierarchical processes that governs the smooth and stable conversion efficiency of iPAR to biomass. However, different RUE values should be used to estimate seed yield when irrigation is suspended at the heading (RUE, 0.29 g MJ −1 ), flowering (RUE, 0.35 g MJ −1 ) or milking (RUE, 0.44 g MJ −1 ) stages, because after the vegetative stage, synchronization of the processes underlying the late growth – grain filling phases was lost. Despite this, even if the yield performance followed the water treatment (2.69, 3.61 and 4.36 t ha −1 for increasing water supply), the productivity of sunflower with small (150 mm) or moderate (270 mm) amounts of water ensured satisfactory seed production and water saving (74% and 53% reduction, compared to well-watered treatment) in water-limited environments.

I talian processed tomato has a major dominance at the global level but few studies have been conducted using a cropping systems analysis approach for this crop.The objective of this research was to evaluate the Cropping System Model (CSM)-CROPGRO-Tomato of the DSSAT (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer) software with experimental data obtained from field studies conducted in Legnaro, northeastern Italy in 2009 and 2010. The experiment encompassed four transplanting dates with ten-day intervals from 22nd March (TD1, 2, 3, and 4), and two processing tomato varieties (Augusto F1 (De Ruiter), and NPT 63 (S & G)) comparing mulched and non-mulched plots. A comparison of yield for the different transplanting dates showed that earlier transplanting increased yield for both varieties, there was a variation in yield between varieties in both years. Calibration of CSM-CROPGRO-Tomato model using non-mulched data of 2009 showed that index of agreement (d-Stat) between observations and model simulation for different parameters (total dry matter, fruits fresh and dry weight, vegetative dry matter, number of fruits, harvest index and leaf area index) using both varieties ranged from 0.562 to 0.964 at TD1, from 0.915 to 0.992 at TD2, from 0.566 to 0.990 at TD3, and from 0.733 to 0.998 at TD4. Values of d-Stat for model calibration were lower for leaf area index, which ranged from 0.511 to 0.924. Model calibration using TD1 gave acceptable simulation, whereas it was quite high with the other transplanting dates. CSM-CROPGRO-Tomato model could be used as a decision-making tool helping in regional short term plans.

A large interest is currently addressed to the no-food crops as an alternative source of energy. One of these crops is the biomass sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) thanks to its high biomass productivity and high use efficiency of solar radiation and water. Aim of the research is assess the biomass sorghum response to the water in the Mediterranean environment. Biomass sorghum was subjected to four irrigation regimes, at 50, 75, 100 and 125% of ETc for three years (2008, 2009 and 2010). Water use efficiency (WUE), irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) and water stress index (WSI) were calculated. Plant dry matter and green area index resulted different among the three years and the differences among irrigation treatments were more evident in 2009. The different soil water content at sowing among the three experimental years, affected the growth path during the growing crop cycle, explaining differences in term of biomass accumulation, leaf expansion and water consumption. WUE was higher in 2009 than in 2008 and 2010 with no differences among irrigation treatments for the first and third experimental year. WU ranged between 891 and 566 mm, the aboveground dry matter biomass between 4,097 and 1,825 g m ‐2 and WUE between 8.49 and 4.00 kg m ‐3 . IWUE, similarly to WUE, was higher in the second year than in the first and third year, but with differences among irrigation treatments in the 2008 and 2010. WUE calculated from WU normalized with VPD gave a more stable parameter in the three years. This research showed the suitability of biomass sorghum as energy crop in Mediterranean environment and its ability to use water efficiently. Additional key words: Sorghum bicolor; irrigation water use efficiency; green area index; biomass yield; water stress index; actual transpiration.

Seeds of the Andean seed crop quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) usually contain saponins in the seed coat. Saponins give a bitter taste sensation and are a serious antinutritional factor, therefore selection of sweet genotypes with a very low saponin content in the seeds is a main breeding goal. The objective of this work was to identify, within germplasm lines of quinoa, previously selected for production and quality traits, superior genotypes low in saponins. For this purpose the total saponin content was determined in seeds of eight lines of quinoa and one variety (cv. Regalona Baer) as a control, previously evaluated over a 2-year period in a Southern Italy environment. Significant variation for the saponin content was observed among the evaluated genotypes. The total saponin content ranged from 0.10 to 1.80%, with the Q12 genotype showing the lowest value, suggesting the possibility of selecting genotypes sweet to be used in subsequent genetic improvement programs. Based on these results, in fact, it was possible to identify, among the accessions previously selected, particularly suitable for growing in Mediterranean area, some genotypes with high yields of seed (2.5 tha–1, on average), high protein (17%, on average) and fibres (13%, on average) and low content in saponins (0.57%, on average).

Conservation agriculture (CA) in the last decades has been spread in several parts of the world, especially in South and North America and Australia. In Italy, however, its adoption is often restrained by the risk to have a reduction in crop production in the early years of transition from conventional (CT) to CA. To quantify sufficient financial support to promote no-tillage and CA, a mini-review about main effects of CA was conducted. The effect on crop yield, soil fertility - especially as it is influenced by the chemical, physical and microbiological factors - on soil compaction, the economic balance of the farm and the cost of equipment for direct seeding, the influence of environment on soil erosion, water retention, emissions of greenhouse gases, and carbon sequestration are briefly treated. The paper reports findings from national and international scientific literature and some results from long-term experiments conducted in Southern Italy. The main conclusions are about the reduction of yield in the first years of transition from CT to CA (from -5 to -10%), an improvement of soil fertility (soil organic carbon increases in the upper layers), reduction of management cost (less machinery operations), improvement of soil C sequestration (in specific conditions), a reduction of greenhouse gases emission and soil erosion risk. The paper provides the scientific basis in order to justify and quantify the amount to be paid to the farmers who decide to adopt the model of CA, oriented to protect the agro-ecosystem and to promote the principle of subsidiarity. Finally, a proposal of public subsidy in cash and for machinery purchase has been described.

A more efficient crop water use in biomass and yield accumulation can represent great water saving in the waterlimited environments. Crop management – irrigation, sowing time, fertilization – could affect water (and irrigation water) transformation efficiency in dry matter and commercial yield of beet and tomato in Southern Italy. This field research, carried out in two locations of Southern Italy (Foggia and Vasto) in 1998-2002 period, compared for sugar beet irrigation regimes (optimal, 100% of ETc and reduced, 60% of ETc) and sowing times (autumnal and spring); for tomato three irrigation regimes were compared, re-establishing 100% (ET100), 66 (ET66) and 33% (ET33) of crop evapotranspiration. Water and irrigation water transformation efficiency in harvestable yield (WUEhdm and IRRWUE hdm), in total dry matter (WUEdm and IRRWUEdm) and sucrose (WUEsuc) were calculated both at harvest and during crop cycle. The results showed a significant effect of sowing date on WUEhdm and WUEsuc of sugar beet (respectively 2.44 and 2.12 for autumnal sowing and 1.08 and 0.84 kg m-3 for spring sowing). Irrigation regimes did not show significant differences. “Irrigation x sowing times” interaction was significant for WUEdm, with a superiority of reduced vs. optimal only in spring sowing time. In tomato, WUEdm was not affected by the irrigation regime, while WUEhdm in ET66 treatment was more efficient treatment than ET100 (1.19 vs. 1.00 kg m-3). “Year” effect was significant for WUEdm and WUEhdm with lowest values in the driest year. IRRWUE was higher in tomato than in sugar beet, considering dry matter, fresh harvestable product and also from an economic point of view. The temporal analysis of water use efficiency showed WUEdm and WUEhdm greater in the middle of crop cycle in autumnal than in spring sugar beet, but not between the irrigation regimes. In tomato, the ET66 treatment resulted the most efficient in water using, especially at the end of crop cycle. This information can be useful in the crop management of sugar beet and tomato in Southern Italy and to better address the scarce irrigation water resources.

Productivity and resource-use efficiency in corn ( Zea mays L.) are crucial issues in sustainable agriculture, especially in high-demand resource crops such as corn. The aims of this research were to compare irrigation scheduling and nitrogen fertilization rates in corn, evaluating yield, water (WUE), irrigation water (IRRWUE) and nitrogen use (NUE) efficiencies. A 2-year field experiment was carried out in a Mediterranean coastal area of Central Italy (175 mm of rainfall in the corn-growing period) and corn was subjected to three irrigation levels (rainfed and supply at 50 and 100% of crop evapotranspiration, ETc) in interaction with three nitrogen fertilization levels (not fertilized, 15 and 30 g (N) m −2 ). The results indicated a large yearly variability, mainly due to a rainfall event at the silking stage in the first year; a significant irrigation effect was observed for all the variables under study, except for plant population. Nitrogen rates affected grain yield plant −1 and ear −1 , grain and biomass yield, HI, WUE, IRRWUE and NUE, with significant differences between non-fertilized and the two fertilized treatments (15 and 30 g (N) m −2 ). Furthermore, deficit irrigation (50% of ETc) was to a large degree equal to 100% of the ETc irrigation regime. A significant interaction “N × I” was observed for grain yield and WUE. The effect of nitrogen availability was amplified at the maximum irrigation water regime. The relationships between grain yield and evapotranspiration showed basal ET, the amount necessary to start producing grain, of about 63 mm in the first and 206 mm in the second year. Rainfed crop depleted most of the water in the 0–0.6 m soil depth range, while irrigated scenarios absorbed soil water within the profile to a depth of 1.0 m. Corn in a Mediterranean area can be cultivated with acceptable yields while saving irrigation water and reducing nitrogen supply and also exploiting the positive interaction between these two factors, so maximizing resource-use efficiency.

A four-year field experiment to evaluate the effects of different types of organic fertilizers on yield and quality of processing tomato and on soil chemical evolution, was carried out in Southern Italy during the 2002–2005 period on a siltyclay soil. The fertilization treatments aimed to supply 100 kg ha -1 of N and were: 1) an organic biological fertilizer (BIO); 2) an experimental compost composed by olive residues, sludge and straw (COMP); 3) a mix (MIX) of an organic fertilizer (50%) and ammonium nitrate (50%); 4) a traditional chemical fertilizer (ammonium nitrate, MIN). At harvest the main productive and qualitative parameters were assessed (fresh and dried yield; biomass and marketable yield). Chemical analyses of the soil were made at the start and at the end of experiment. Fruit yield did not differ among the fertilization treatments, but unripe fruit yield was higher in the MIN and BIO treatment; MIN showed also smaller fruit than BIO and COMP. The N availability during crop cycle influenced the mean fruit weight, date, and simultaneity of maturity during the ripening process. Soil characteristics changed during the four years of application for mineral N and among treatments (P2O5 for BIO and COMP and mineral N for MIN and MIX fertilization treatments). Heavy metals: cupper and zinc did not increase their concentration in the soil; instead, lead increased below the Italian law’s limit in COMP. The possibility to use organic fertilizer for processing tomatoes has been evaluated and the conclusions are that organic fertilization is, in same cases, more suitable than mineral one from a productive and soil fertility standpoint of view.

The Apulia region in Southern Italy is an important area for sugar beet cultivation. It is characterised by clay soils and a hot-arid and winter-temperate climate. The capability of sugar beet to exploit solar radiation, water use and irrigation supply in root yield, total dry matter and sucrose production was studied and analysed in relation to two experimental factors: sowing date – autumn (October–December) and spring (March) – and irrigation regime – optimal and reduced (respectively with 100 and 60% of actual evapotranspiration). Data sets from three experiments of spring sowing and three of autumn sowing were used to calculate: (1) water use efficiency in the conversion in dry matter (WUE dm , plant dry matter at harvest versus seasonal water use ratio), in sucrose (WUE suc , sucrose yield versus seasonal water use ratio); (2) irrigation water use efficiency in the conversion in dry matter (IRRWUE dm ), in sucrose (IRRWUE suc ) and fresh root yield (IRRWUE fr ); and (3) radiation use efficiency (RUE, plant dry matter during the crop cycle and at harvest versus intercepted solar radiation ratio). Autumnal beet was more productive than spring for fresh root, plant total dry matter, sucrose yield and concentration; also WUE suc and IRRWUE s were higher in the autumnal sugar beet, but no difference was observed in WUE dm (on average, 2.83 g of dry matter kg −1 of water used). An average saving of about 26% of seasonal irrigation supply (equivalent to about 100 mm) was measured in the three years with the earliest sowing time. The optimal irrigation regime produced higher root yield, plant total dry matter and sucrose yield than the reduced one; on the contrary the IRRWUE fr and IRRWUE dm were higher in the reduced irrigation strategy. WUE s and IRRUWE s correlated positively with the length of crop cycle, expressed in growth degree days and, in particular, to the length of the period from full soil cover canopy to crop harvest, the period when plant photosynthetic activity and sucrose accumulation are at maximum rates. Seasonal RUE was higher in the spring than in the autumn sowing (1.14 μg J −1 versus 1.00 μg J −1 ). The RUE values during the crop cycle reached the maximum in the period around complete canopy soil cover. The results showed the importance for better use of water and radiation resources of autumnal sowing time and of reduced irrigation regime in sugar beet cropped in a Mediterranean environment.

Soil moisture and temperature, sowing depth and penetration resistance affect the time and percentage of seedling emergence, which are crucial for the simulation of drought-limited crop production. The aim of this research was to measure the effect of soil water potential on germination and emergence, shoot and root elongation rates (SER and RER) of two different seed/crop types. Sugar beet and durum wheat seeds were sown into two soils (clay and loam), submitted to five matric potentials (-0.01, -0.1, -0.2, -0.4 and -0.8 MPa) and incubated at constant temperature (25 degrees C) and humidity. Cumulative count analysis was used to estimate parameters of the distribution of germination or emergence times for each box of beet or wheat seeds and to derive estimates for base potentials (psi(b)), hydrothermal times (H) and numbers of viable units. In a second experiment, NaCl solution was used to mimic the soil matric potentials to estimate potential RER and SER. Germination of sugar beet was slightly more sensitive to matric potential than durum wheat (psi(b) Of - 1.13 and - 1.23 MPa, respectively). H-(g) was longer for sugar beet than for durum wheat (67 vs 47 MPa degrees Cd). For emergence Ob was similar for both seed types and soils but hydrothermal times (H-(e)) were 40 MPa degrees Cd higher for sugar beet than for wheat. Emergence was about 20 MPa degrees Cd earlier in loam than in clay. SER measured in soils were similar for both crops and for durum wheat it agreed with those determined in NaCl solution. RER and SER fell with decreasing osmotic potential to approximately 20% of their maximum values (1.03 rum h(-1) and 0.57 mm h(-1), respectively). Seedling viability decreased with decreasing matric potential and more in clay than in loam soil and more for sugar beet than durum wheat. Seed and soil aggregate size are discussed with respect to the effects of water diffusion and soil-seed contact on germination and emergence modelling.

In water-limited environments soil water content at sowing is important in determining durum wheat germination, emergence and plant establishment. Soil water content interacts greatly with soil nitrogen content, affecting nitrogen uptake and crop productivity. Simulation models can be used to confirm the optimal strategy by testing several crop management scenarios. The CERES-Wheat model, previously calibrated and validated in southern Italy, has been used in a seasonal analysis to optimise nitrogen fertilisation of durum wheat at different levels of crop available water (CAW) at planting date in southern Italy. The simulation was carried out for a 48-year period with measured daily climatic data. The 99 simulated scenarios derived from the combinations of different CAW levels at sowing, nitrogen fertiliser rates and application times. The results obtained from the simulation indicated that the effect of CAW at sowing was relevant for durum wheat production at lowest and highest values, while the optimal sowing time to maximise yield and profit can be considered when CAW is 40–60%. In the case study optimal N fertiliser amount was estimated to be 100±20 kg ha−1, from a productive, environmental and economic point of view. The nitrogen split application—half at sowing and half at stem extension stage—resulted in the best management practice. This application of the CERES-Wheat model confirmed the capability of the model to compare several crop management strategies in a typical durum wheat cropping area.

The results of an experiment on olive-mill wastewater (OMWW) distribution in durum wheat are reported. The OMWW was spread without pre-treatments, at the maximum amount allowed by law, on a durum wheat crop in a Mediterranean environment. The experiment was carried out on the same plots from 1999 to 2001 in Monopoli (southern Italy) with two treatments—(not treated) NT and (treated) T. In the treated plots, OMWW obtained from a traditional press system was spread, during the crop vegetative phase, at 50 m 3 ha � 1 . Soil and OMWW were characterised from both physical and chemical aspects. An automatic meteorological station recorded main climatic variables during the period from January to May each year. During the growth cycle of durum wheat, destructive growth analysis was carried out for every 14 days, to measure dry matter weight, leaf area index (LAI), plant population and, at harvest, yield components and grain quality. The results indicated that OMWW without pre-treatments spread on a durum wheat crop during vegetative phase produced some necrosis of the leaves and caused a slow emission of secondary stems. However, in this stage, durum wheat showed good capability to recover. Plant dry matter accumulation was not significantly influenced by OMWW spreading since it occurred at the beginning of the vegetative stage, when plants grow quickly. No significant differences, neither for grain nor for straw yield, between the two treatments were highlighted. The results of 3 years of experiments showed that the durum wheat crop can tolerate OMWW spreading during early growing stages. Great care should be used in spreading the wastewater uniformly on the soil, respecting the laws about soil capability to endure OMWW application. # 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Crop simulation models are potentially useful tools in agricultural decision-making. In Italy, few applications have been recorded, and those implemented have been mainly restricted to the estimation of crop water requirements in irrigated basins or the estimation of potential crop yields. In general, a model must be evaluated in a variety of conditions as a pre-requisite for its use. The OILCROP–SUN model was first parameterised and then validated, using independent data sets coming from three southern Italian environments in which sunflower was subjected to different irrigation schedules. The validation showed the model to be effective in simulating phenology, seed yield and seasonal evapotranspiration, whereas seed weight was rather poorly simulated. The model simulated the temporal changes in soil water content, leaf area index and total dry matter reasonably well. The model application consisted in comparing spring vs. summer sowing of sunflower in the three environments and in selecting the optimal threshold value of available soil water at which to start automatic irrigation. As for the sowing dates, the spring sowing showed a higher seed yield and net return than the summer sowing. With regard to the irrigation regimes, the highest seed yield was obtained with a soil water content within the 80–100% range of available soil water, while the highest economic return was reached using a threshold value of 40% of total soil water.

A decision support system (DSS) is an interactive software-based system used to help decision-makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data, documents, and personal knowledge; to identify and solve problems; and to make an optimized decision. The DSS architecture consists of the database (or knowledge base), the model (i.e., the decision context and user criteria), and the user interface. The main advantages of using a DSS include examination of multiple alternatives, better understanding of the processes, identification of unpredicted situations, enhanced communication, cost effectiveness, and better use of data and resources. The application DSS in agriculture and environment has been rapidly increased in the past decade, which allows rapid assessment of agricultural production systems around the world and decision-making at both farm and district levels, though constraints exist for successful adoption of this technology in agriculture. One of the important applications of DSS in agriculture is water management at both field and district levels. Agriculture is facing more severe and growing competition with other sectors for freshwater. The water resources are becoming increasingly insufficient to meet the demand in developing countries and their quality is declining due to pollution and inadequate management. Irrigation is an effective means to enhance crop productions, but water needs to be supplied accurately, taking into account its availability, crop requirement and land size, irrigation systems, and crop productivity and feasibility. This chapter attempts to present the state-of-art principles, design, and application of DSS in agriculture, particularly irrigation practices, and to identify emerging approaches and future direction of research in this field.

A crop simulation model was used to optimize irrigation scheduling for sunflower grown in Southern Italy. The EPIC model, calibrated and validated in previous studies, was run for a 45-year simulation with climatic data measured daily, using 66 scenarios involving a combination of irrigation times (at five fixed data), seasonal irrigation amounts (from 0 to 200 mm) and irrigation frequency. The results obtained from the simulation indicate: (i) the superiority of single or double irrigation in the central phase (bud flower opening, flowering) for seed and biomass yield; (ii) the optimal value of seasonal irrigation water to be about 250–300 mm for the highest water use efficiency value; (iii) the highest profitability for the farmer achieved with a single irrigation of 200 mm at bud flower phase and a reduction of net income with irrigation at sowing or at seed ripening phases. The EPIC model, due to its sub-models (growth, weather, soil, management, water, erosion, economic, etc.), can be considered a useful tool for comparing several management strategies, and requires a minimum investment of time and money. This approach could be used at the farm level or on a larger scale.

We tested the capability of CropSyst, a cropping system simulation model, to simulate cropping systems at two locations (Modena and Foggia) representative of the largest plain areas of Italy. Experimental data collected from rotation experiments during the period 1985–1991 were used to calibrate and validate the model. The data set available was not detailed enough to test most of the sub-models, but it was adequate for a satisfactory test of overall model performance. Simulations were conducted for 6-year rotations providing initial conditions of the first year without reinitializing the model in later years in the rotation sequence. Model evaluation was performed with the understanding that a large amount of variability was present in the data and that rotation effects other than water (e.g., diseases) were not accounted for by the model. The phenology sub-model proved sufficiently accurate, showing some limitation only in the case of winter cereals. Model simulations of maize, soybean, and barley growth at Modena, and sorghum and sunflower growth at Foggia were reasonably accurate. CropSyst was able to predict neither the yields of soybean grown as a second crop, nor the durum wheat yield variability in the rotations at Foggia. Although CropSyst was able to simulate reasonably well a number of cropping systems, the development of a more detailed field data base is desirable for further evaluation and improvement of the model for Italian conditions.

Irrigation management at district or regional scale can be dealt using ecological process-based models and remote sensing data. Simulation crop models simulate at a certain time step the main biophysical variables determining crop photosynthesis and water consumption rates. The research consists in an integrated approach to combine field data, simulation crop model and remote sensing information. Detailed data sets related to topography, soil, climate and land cover were collected and organized into a Geographic Information System, which is routinely updated with remotely sensed images. The code implementation of these two models allows for an improvement of simulation reliability for the crop types considered in the present study in Mediterranean area. Remote sensing images detected by optical and radar satellite sensors at different spatial scales (from 10 to 50 m) have been collected over the analyzed crop cycles. Therefore, remote sensing information about land use and leaf area index (LAI) are assimilated dynamically by the model, to increase the effectiveness of simulation. The integration of crop and water dynamics models with the updated remote sensing information is a Decision Support Systems, AQUATER software, able to integrate remote sensing images, to estimate crop and soil variables related to drought, and subsequently to assimilate these variables into a simulation model at district scale. The significant final outputs are estimated values of evapotranspiration, plant water status and drought indicators. The present work describes the structure of AQUATER software and reports some application results over 2006 and 2007 cropping seasons in Capitanata, South-East Italy. This region has been divided in simulation units cropped by tomato (Lycopersicon lycopersicum L.), sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L. var. saccharifera) and durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.). Two types of comparison have been carried out: (i) between some tomato observed and simulated data, and (ii) between “LAI Forcing” and “No LAI Forcing” simulated data. LAI Forcing data have been detected by remote sensing over the crop cycle and over the whole region. The model showed a relevant coherence between observed and simulated data (RRMSE = 32, 55, 30% for above ground biomass, LAI and soil water content, respectively). In the case of the application of the LAI Forcing procedure, since simulated LAI are lower than the observed values, as a consequence, simulation results underestimate.

In recent years, the interest for legume crops has been increasing in the European Community, both for the agronomic improvement of soil fertility and for human and animal food source reasons. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) in the Mediterranean environment is not usually irrigated. Knowledge about its canopy growth, water and radiation use efficiencies can improve chickpea productivity. In this study, the chickpea has been submitted to different irrigation scheduling at specific crop phases and as a function of soil moisture. Total plant biomass was related to water availability and radiation interception. But in good conditions of available water there was a lengthening of the crop cycle, with reduction of pod growth, harvest index and nutrient toward the seeds. Consequently, the best values of water use efficiency were found in the treatment irrigated with 50 mm only at flowering or at pod filling. Protein yield was higher in the treatment refilling field capacity when soil plant available water was 25%. A canopy extinction coefficient of 0.84 and a radiation use efficiency of 1.02 g MJ, on average, were found. In conclusion, the irrigation of the chickpea at sensitive phases (flowering and pod filling) and with a low amount of water, resulted in the best strategies.

Broad bean (Vicia faba var. minor L.) is a legume crop cultivated in the Mediterranean area for animal feeding and green manure purposes. The crop has an important role on the sustainability of the cropping systems for its ability to fix nitrogen and for the effects on soil structure, weed competition, nitrate leaching and pest control. This research, carried out in Central Italy, investigated the effect of the irrigation and nitrogen fertilization on productive traits of broad bean (biomass, seed yield, seed weight, harvest index, protein yield), seed chemical composition (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, trypsin inhibitors, tannin polyphenols, total polyphenols), water and nitrogen budgets (ETc, WUE, plant N content, N fixed, soil N uptake). The yearly variability was the factor that greatly influenced the crop performances in term of total biomass (13.6 t ha-1, on average), yield (3.53 t ha-1, on average) and protein yield (841 kg ha-1, on average). Evapotranspiration was affected by the water availability (rainfall and irrigation), and water use efficiency for the biomass (31.68 g kg -1, on average) and yield (8.36 g kg -1, on average) were quite stable among water and nitrogen treatments. Anti-nutritional factors in the seed remained similar for all experimental treatments and below the threshold levels for animal feeding purposes.

Conservative agriculture and nitrogen fertilisation have been evaluated for the purpose of assessing their impact on the sustainability of a cropping system based on a two-year rotation with two crops considered for the bio-ethanol supply chain: sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris) and sweet sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor L. Moench). The experimental activity started in 2009 in Foggia (Apulia, southern Italy). We discuss the results obtained in the 2010-2011 period. Soil minimum tillage (MT) vs no tillage (NT) combined with two doses of nitrogen fertilisation (75 and 150 kg ha –1 of mineral nitrogen as ammonium nitrate) were compared. The experimental system, which is still operational (soil tillage plus nitrogen fertilisation), was arranged with a split-plot design with three replicates. Treatments were applied on the same plots every year with both crops present at the same time. At the first harvest in 2010, no difference was observed. As to the second year, the comparison between NT vs MT treatments showed that sugar beet had lower total yield (35 vs 42 t ha –1 ), dry biomass (10 vs 14 t ha –1 ), and sucrose yield (6.7 vs 8.2 t ha –1 ). Total soluble solids, on average 19%, were not influenced by the experimental treatments. Nitrogen (N) control was less productive than the fertilised treatments (average between N75 and N150) in terms of total fresh root yield (32 vs 42 t ha –1 ), dry biomass (10 vs 14 t ha –1 ), and sucrose yield (6.0 vs 8.1 t ha –1 ). As with sugar beet, during the second year, also sweet sorghum sown in NT vs MT plots had a reduced yield, although the difference was more marked for fresh biomass (–35%) than for dry biomass (–20%). No interaction in terms of soil tillage nitrogen fertilisation occurred. In summary, in the first two-year period (2010-2011) of the experimental trial, no tillage soil management showed decreased yields of both crops. Sugar beet displayed a higher sensitivity to the lack of nitrogen supply than sweet sorghum.

Agricultural crops are affected by climate change due to the relationship between crop development, growth, yield, CO2 atmospheric concentration and climate conditions. In particular, the further reduction in existing limited water resources combined with an increase in temperature may result in higher impacts on agricultural crops in the Mediterranean area than in other regions. In this study, the cropping system models CERES-Wheat and CROPGRO-Tomato of the Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer (DSSAT) were used to analyse the response of winter durum wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) crops to climate change, irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer managements in one of most productive areas of Italy (i.e. Capitanata, Puglia). For this analysis, three climatic datasets were used: (1) a single dataset (50 km × 50 km) provided by the JRC European centre for the period 1975–2005; two datasets from HadCM3 for the IPCC A2 GHG scenario for time slices with +2°C (centred over 2030–2060) and +5°C (centred over 2070–2099), respectively. All three datasets were used to generate synthetic climate series using a weather simulator (model LARS-WG). Adaptation strategies, such as irrigation and N fertilizer managements, have been investigated to either avoid or at least reduce the negative impacts induced by climate change impacts for both crops. Warmer temperatures were primarily shown to accelerate wheat and tomato phenology, thereby resulting in decreased total dry matter accumulation for both tomato and wheat under the +5°C future climate scenario. Under the +2°C scenario, dry matter accumulation and resulting yield were also reduced for tomato, whereas no negative yield effects were observed for winter durum wheat. In general, limiting the global mean temperature change of 2°C, the application of adaptation strategies (irrigation and nitrogen fertilization) showed a positive effect in minimizing the negative impacts of climate change on productivity of tomato cultivated in southern Italy.

Biomass sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is a crop that can be used for energy production in the bioethanol chain and a greater knowledge of its potential and response to irrigation water levels could help to assess its potential diffusion in Mediterranean areas. A two-year field experiment was carried out in Southern Italy; two irrigation regimes were compared in biomass sorghum, optimal watered (irrigation supplies greater than actual crop evapotranspiration, ETc ) and stressed watered (about 65% of the optimal one). Growth analysis, soil water content and aboveground dry biomass ( ADM ) yield at harvest were measured and analyzed. Radiation use efficiency ( RUE ), irrigation ( IWUE ) and water use efficiencies ( WUE ) were also calculated. Seasonal water use ranged from 830 mm in the optimal treatment to 589 mm in the stressed one. Similarly, ADM proved to be statistically different between the two irrigation treatments (34.6 vs 19.8 t of dry matter ha– 1 ). The RUE , calculated as the slope of the first order equation between dry biomass and intercepted photosynthetically active radiation along a crop cycle, showed an average of 2.84±0.65 g MJ– 1. No statistical differences for IWUE and WUE were obtained between irrigation regimes (8.22 and 5.87 kg m– 3, on average). The two years of experiment influenced IWUE and WUE (both larger in the rainier growing season), but not the RUE . The high RUE and WUE obtained values confirmed that biomass sorghum is a crop with considerable dry matter production efficiency. The experimental results suggest that the introduction of biomass sorghum in the cropping systems of Mediterranean environments as an alternative crop for energy purposes is feasible, but requires an adequate seasonal irrigation water supply (not less than 500 mm).

Mathematical crop simulation models are useful tools in predicting the potential yield of field crops in a specific environment. The main driving parameter used to estimate biomass accumulation in most of these models is radiation-use efficiency (RUE). Biomass sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is a crop that can be used for energy production (thermal and bioethanol chains) and a knowledge of its RUE in different water supply conditions can help to improve model simulations and evaluate crop diffusion. A 3-year field experiment was carried out in Southern Italy where sorghum was submitted to four irrigated regimes based on actual crop evapotranspiration (ETc). In the first year ETc was measured with weighted lysimeters, while in the other 2 years it was estimated by means of estimated crop coefficient (Kc) and the reference evapotranspiration ET0. The RUE, calculated as the slope of the first-order equation between dry biomass and intercepted photosynthetically active radiation along a crop cycle, showed an average of 2.91 ± 0.54 g MJ–1, even if the RUE proved to be closely correlated with crop water consumption. The latter ranged between 891 and 454 mm and the RUE increased 4.2 mg MJ–1 per mm of water used. A high crop interception of solar radiation was observed in sorghum, reaching its maximum efficiency 40 days after sowing. To obtain high yielding yield biomass sorghum requires a large supply of water, as confirmed by the Kc calculated during the crop cycle, which resulted higher (especially in the development and middle stages) when compared with those reported in the FAO 56 Paper. The obtained RUE values also confirmed a high efficiency in biomass production of this crop, allowing for the introduction of biomass sorghum in the cropping systems of Mediterranean environments as an alternative crop for energy purposes, but with adequate irrigation water supply.

The aim of this work was to apply the CropSyst simulation model to evaluate the effect of faba bean cultivation as a break crop in the continuous durum wheat cropping system in southern Italy. The model was previously calibrated and validated for durum wheat and faba bean on data derived from experiments carried out in southern Italy (for different years and treatments), comparing observed and simulated crop growth, yield, soil water, and nitrogen output variables. The validation showed good agreement between simulated and observed values for cumulative above-ground biomass, green area index, and soil water content for both crops and grain yield for durum wheat; a negative correlation for grain yield in faba bean was observed due to a reduction in harvest index in the well-watered crop, which the model does not simulate well. Subsequently, a long-term analysis was carried out to study the effects on durum wheat of introducing a legume crop in rotation with the cereal in 2 and 3-year sequences. A long-term simulation, based on 53 years of daily measured weather data, showed that faba bean, due to a lower level of transpirated water (on average 247 mm for durum wheat and 197 mm for faba bean), allowed for greater soil water availability at durum wheat sowing for the cereal when in rotation with a legume crop (on average, +84 mm/m for durum wheat following the faba bean), with positive effects for nitrogen uptake, above-ground biomass, and grain yield of wheat. The yield increase of wheat when following a faba bean crop was on average +12%, but this effect was amplified in drier years (up to 135%). In conclusion, the case study offered the potential to confirm the positive results previously obtained in long/medium-term field experiments on the introduction of faba bean in rotation with durum wheat, as well as reduction in the chemical application of nitrogen.