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European legislation implies the use of marginal social cost pricing in rail access charges levied on rail operators. Thus, they may include specific environmental charges to internalise the impacts of rail transport. However, when applying these principles in practice, several difficulties call for second-best settings adapted to the particularities of the rail market. In this context, few European railway administrations are already implementing rail access charges with an environmental dimension. This paper reviews the literature on the issue and assesses the current European experience in noise and air pollution rail charges. For this purpose, an analytical framework is built on the definition of four basic dimensions: charging approach, allocation of abatement efforts, degree of differentiation and intermodal approach. The qualitative examination of the existing systems suggests that the level of environmental surcharges can be generally increased given the low substitutability between rail and road and that the range of abatement possibilities should be enlarged by further differentiating charges. It is also found that the pricing scope should be adapted to achieve particular cost-efficient allocations of abatement efforts among rail operators and upstream agents. Finally, further research requirements for a quantitative assessment are defined. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: Environmental policies in Europe have successfully eliminated the most visible and immediate harmful effects of air pollution in the last decades. However, there is ample and robust scientific evidence that even at present rates Europe’s emissions to the atmosphere pose a significant threat to human health, ecosystems and the global climate, though in a less visible and immediate way. As many of the ‘low hanging fruits’ have been harvested by now, further action will place higher demands on economic resources, especially at a time when resources are strained by an economic crisis. In addition, interactions and interdependencies of the various measures could even lead to counter-productive outcomes of strategies if they are ignored. Integrated assessment models, such as the GAINS (Greenhouse gas – Air pollution Interactions and Synergies) model, have been developed to identify portfolios of measures that improve air quality and reduce greenhouse gas emissions at least cost. Such models bring together scientific knowledge and quality-controlled data on future socio-economic driving forces of emissions, on the technical and economic features of the available emission control options, on the chemical transformation and dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere, and the resulting impacts on human health and the environment. The GAINS model and its predecessor have been used to inform the key negotiations on air pollution control agreements in Europe during the last two decades. This paper describes the methodological approach of the GAINS model and its components. It presents a recent policy analysis that explores the likely future development of emissions and air quality in Europe in the absence of further policy measures, and assesses the potential and costs for further environmental improvements. To inform the forthcoming negotiations on the revision of the Gothenburg Protocol of the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, the paper discusses the implications of alternative formulations of environmental policy targets on a cost-effective allocation of further mitigation measures. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of specific emission control measures on the air quality of urban centres and local area hotspots. In order to achieve this, a sequence of regional, urban and local scale models was applied to assess the impact of European emission control strategies on urban and local scale air quality. First, vehicle fleet and activity data were estimated using appropriate models. The results of these models were used as input to the COPERT model in order to estimate vehicle emissions (NO2 and PM10) at country level up to the year 2030. Vehicle emissions were calculated according to two different scenarios: A baseline scenario, CLE (Current LEgislation) and an optimistic alternative, MFR (Maximum Feasible Reductions). Urban background and traffic hotspot concentrations of air pollutants were then calculated using the OFIS (Ozone FIne Structure) and OSPM (Operational Street Pollution Model) models respectively for 20 cities in Europe and for particular types of streets. Air quality was found to improve in 2030 compared to the reference year 2000, in line with the stricter NOx and PM vehicle emission limits imposed. The NO2 street increments for narrow canyons estimated for the reference year were found to be in the range of 16–53 μg m−3, depending on the city considered. These were reduced to 14–36 μg m−3 in the CLE scenario and 7–24 μg m−3 in the MFR scenario. The corresponding range for PM10 was estimated to be 5–15 μg m−3 for the reference year and was reduced to 2–8 μg m−3 and 0.2–2.4 μg m−3 for the CLE and the MFR scenarios respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Estimates of population exposure to air pollution on the European scale are required for policy development and health impact assessment. Long term exposure estimates of this type can be made using spatially distributed air quality and population density data. Gridded chemical transport models (CTMs) are often used for this purpose, however the grid resolution of CTMs that cover entire continents is usually limited to 25–100 km and there may be a significant level of unresolved variability within the grids that will impact on the exposure estimates. In this paper sub-grid variability and its impact on long term exposure estimates is assessed by investigating the covariance of concentration and population, which is shown to be the defining term in estimating the average sub-grid population exposure. A parameterisation of the sub-grid covariance is described, based on the sub-grid covariance of other proxy data, and this is applied using EMEP model results for all of Europe. The study shows that the error made in the exposure calculations for all of Europe is significant for the typical CTM resolution of 50 km. The error is largest for NO2, where the average European urban background exposure using CTMs is underestimated by 44 ± 4%. Particulate matter with a diameter less than 10 μm (PM10) is also underestimated, but only by 15 ± 4%. Calculation of the sub-grid covariance for the ozone health indicator SOMO35 (Sum of Ozone 8 h running Means Over 35 ppb) was not carried out for all of Europe as the sub-grid parameterisation was considered too uncertain for useful application. However, estimates based on observations alone show that population weighted SOMO35 concentrations are overestimated by around 13% when using model grid resolutions of 50 km. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Data from existing monitoring programmes such as ICP Forests, ICP Integrated Monitoring and EMEP, as well as from large-scale international projects such as CarboEurope IP and NitroEurope, can be used to answer questions about the impacts of air pollution and climate change on forest ecosystems and the feedbacks of forest to climate. However, for full use to be made of the available data, a number of questions need to be answered related to the availability, accessibility, quality and comparability of the data. For example, how can these databases be accessed, e.g., freely, over the internet, on request, by authorisation? How should intellectual property rights be protected, while improving access to data? What possibilities exist for harmonisation? Which quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) procedures have been used and for how long? These and other relevant questions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the success of the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, which is one of the oldest international environmental treaties. Addressing the problem of acid rain, parties to the convention have reduced sulfur dioxide emissions in Europe by more than half over a period of 20 years. The use of the Regional Acidification Information and Simulation model to organize the necessary information on pollution control and costs is said to have been a key part of the success of the convention.

Main results of the second stage of the so-called “European Dioxin Emission Inventory” are presented. They cover emission testing data gained from various facilities in the EU (among these the first emission measurements reported from Portugal and Greece) and some central European countries. Further, updated dioxin emission estimates for the most important emission sources in the 17 western European countries and an evaluation of the emission time trend from 1985 to 2005 are presented. The major conclusions are, that

Focuses on the concern surrounding air pollution in Europe. Protocol of the European Union (EU) and the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), which calls for cuts in such air pollutants as sulfur dioxide; Goal of a parallel National Emission Ceilings (NEC) Directive to reduce pollutant emissions; Effort to develop an effective response to the threat of global climate change; Outlook for the effectiveness of these air-pollution policies. INSETS: Environmental Policymaking in the European Union: The Main...;The Clean Air for Europe Programme.

Although past research has emphasized the importance of international regimes for international governance, systematic assessments of regime effects are missing. This article derives a standardized measurement concept for the effectiveness of international environmental regimes. It is based on a simultaneous evaluation of actual policy against a no-regime counterfactual and a collective optimum. Subsequently, the empirical feasibility of the measurement concept is demonstrated by way of two international treaties regulating transboundary air pollution in Europe. The results demonstrate that the regimes indeed show positive effects--but fall substantially short of the collective optima. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the late 1980s, regional integration has been accelerating all over the world. Such regionalisation is likely to influence the acceleration of multilateral and regional cooperation on environmental issues. Among these, Europe's Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) regime has been cited as one of the most successful cases in the world. Thus, the Agenda 21 states that "[Europe's] experience needs to be shared with other regions of the world." In response, Japan's Environment Agency initiated the Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in East Asia (EANET), which is expected to offer a common base of understanding and to enhance regional collective efforts. This does not imply, however, that the East Asian regime formation processes addressing the air pollution issue and its outcomes will converge with European models. This is because the process of such regime formation is influenced not only by environmental concerns but more significantly by many other factors including economic, social and political interests and concerns, as observed in the case of Europe. Thus, this article examines the potential for the formation of an East Asian regime addressing acid deposition control through a comparative analysis of European and ongoing East Asian efforts. In order to complete this task, this article applies the theoretical perspective of comparative regionalism as its analytical framework. In conclusion, the article explores processes to be considered and possible institutional arrangements in East Asia, and suggests lessons that East Asia can draw from the European efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the MEGAPOLI project, a program designed to build regional air-pollution models for every city in the world with a population of more than five million. The project encompasses 23 research organizations from 11 European countries in which its scientists hope that it will lead to better maps of potential exposure to harmful aerosols and particles. According to project leader Alexander Baklanov, MEGAPOLI is aimed to understand the bigger picture of the impact of megacities and the feedbacks between pollution and climate.

The article discusses Apheis programme. The programme aims to provide European decision makers, environmental health professionals and the general public with comprehensive, up to date and easy to use information on air pollution and public health, so that they can make informed decisions about the political, professional and personal issues they face in this area. The author states that Apheis has created an active public health and environmental information network on air pollution related diseases in Europe using a standardised methodology. Findings show that even very small and achievable reductions in particulate pollution levels have a beneficial impact on public health and thus justify taking preventive action in all cities, no matter how low their levels of air pollution.

Reports that theEuropean Commission has approved eight more national allocation plans for the European Union carbon dioxide emissions trading scheme.

Reports on developments in environmental management and policies around the world as of April 1, 1999. Includes the expenditures of the World Bank on climate-changing fossil fuel projects; Program expenditures of the United States that harm the environment; Risk of breathing polluted air to urban children; Year 1999 as the last chance for Europe to pass significant ecological tax reform measures.