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Alcohol abuse often co-exists with a major depressive disorder. In order to understand the development of this comorbidity, it is important to concentrate on the preceding process. It has been suggested that the link between alcohol use and depressive symptoms is a result of an interaction with genetic factors. The aim of this study was to longitudinally examine the effect of the 5-HTTLPR genotype on the association between depressive symptoms and alcohol use in a Dutch community sample. Following a stepwise approach, bivariate correlations, longitudinal regression analyses, and latent growth curve analyses were separately conducted for 316 males and 321 females. A positive correlation between depressive symptoms and alcohol use was shown in female carriers of the 5-HTTLPR short allele. In addition, latent growth curve analyses showed a positive association between alcohol use and the intercept of depressive symptoms (but not the slope), but only in female carriers of the 5-HTTLPR short allele. These findings show that alcohol use may be positively related, at least cross-sectionally, to depressive symptoms in female carriers of the 5-HTTLPR S allele, and indicate that moderators such as SLC6A4 genotype and sex need to be taken into account when examining associations between depressive symptoms and drinking behavior. In order to gain insight into the longitudinal association between alcohol use and depressive symptoms, studies should concentrate on earlier stages and focus on more fine-grained research designs that allow day-to-day changes in both alcohol use and depressive symptoms., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Transitions into heavy alcohol use often already take place during adolescence and are likely to be both genetically and environmentally determined. Therefore, in a 6-wave longitudinal study, we examined the effects of DRD2 Taq1A and OPRM1 A118G genotypes and the interaction with parental rule-setting on different groups of adolescent drinkers., Methods: Growth mixture modeling resulted in 3 distinct groups of adolescent drinkers: light drinkers (n = 346), moderate drinkers (n = 178), and heavy drinkers (n = 72)., Results: Multinomial regression showed that moderate drinkers carried the OPRM1 G allele and received lower levels of parental rule-setting significantly more often than the light drinking group. No other significant main effects of DRD2, OPRM1, and rule-setting were found. The interaction between OPRM1 genotype and parental rule-setting significantly distinguished the heavy drinkers from the light (p < 0.001) and moderate groups (p = 0.055): Particularly, the alcohol use of OPRM1 G allele carriers was affected by parental rule-setting, while AA genotype carriers remained largely unaffected by parental rules., Conclusions: Findings showed that different trajectories of adolescent drinking are preceded by a gene-parenting interaction. These results concur with Belsky's theory of plasticity (2009), as well as with Shanahan and Hofer's typology of a controlling and restricting gene-environment interaction (2005)., (Copyright © 2013 by the Research Society on Alcoholism.)

Aims: The main aim of the study was to test the moderating effect of two genetic polymorphisms, one in the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) and one in the mu-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1), on the link between parental rule-setting and adolescent alcohol use., Methods: A total of 214 adolescents (M(age )=13.7, 44.9% male) provided saliva samples and completed survey items describing alcohol use and parental rule-setting., Results: Findings indicated that alcohol-specific parental rule-setting was more robustly associated with alcohol use for adolescents with the DRD2 A1 risk allele and for those with the OPRM1 G-allele., Conclusion: This study replicates the interaction between parental rule-setting and the DRD2 risk allele on adolescent alcohol use and extends the literature by demonstrating the moderating effects of the OPRM1 risk allele on the link between parental rule-setting and adolescent alcohol use.

The influence of friends and peers is theoretically one of the most consistent and important factors explaining adolescent alcohol use. However, not all adolescents are equally likely to be influenced by their friends' drinking behaviors. Genetic factors may underlie these inter-individual differences in susceptibility to the drinking behavior of friends. Because the long allele (≥ 7 repeats) of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene has been associated with susceptibility to alcohol and alcohol-related cues, we tested whether associations between best friend's and adolescent's alcohol use differed for DRD4 genotypes. A Dutch nationwide sample of 308 adolescents (age 13 at baseline) participated in a prospective, community-based study with five annual waves. A cross-lagged path analysis was carried out in Mplus to examine bi-directional relations between friends' and adolescents' weekly alcohol use (number of drinks). A multi-group approach was applied to test for moderation effects of a 48-base pair variable number of tandem repeats polymorphism in exon 3 of the DRD4 gene. Additionally, with latent growth curve models, it was examined whether the interaction between friends' drinking and DRD4 genotype predicted the development of adolescents' alcohol use. Results showed that both cross-sectionally and longitudinally higher levels of friends' alcohol use resulted in higher levels of adolescents' alcohol consumption over time (and vice versa). No significant moderation of DRD4 genotype was found: Associations between adolescents' and friends' drinking did not differ for adolescent carriers of the DRD4 long allele, when compared with adolescents without the DRD4 long allele. Because this is the first study to examine DRD4 × friends' drinking effects prospectively, replication is essential. Future longitudinal studies, possibly with observational or diary designs, are needed to increase our understanding of the interplay between genetic and environmental risk factors for adolescent alcohol use., (© 2011 The Authors, Addiction Biology © 2011 Society for the Study of Addiction.)

Background: Drinking to cope (i.e., drinking to forget or alleviate negative feelings) has been found to be associated with adolescents' heavy drinking and alcohol-related problems. Additionally, it is widely accepted that genetic factors are involved in alcohol use and dependence. Studies are only beginning to reveal, however, which specific genotypes are related to drinking behaviors, and it is unknown whether they may interact with coping motives in predicting adolescents' risky drinking. The aim of this study was to examine relationships between the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) Taq1A polymorphism (rs1800497), a serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) polymorphism (5-HTTLPR), coping motives, and adolescents' binge drinking and alcohol-related problems., Methods: Participants in this cross-sectional study were 282 Dutch adolescents (mean age 17.4, 47% men) who had consumed alcohol at least once in their life., Results: Coping motives were positively related to both binge drinking and alcohol-related problems, while DRD2 and SLC6A4 genotypes were not. DRD2, but not the SLC6A4 genotype, interacted with coping motives. The link between coping motives and alcohol outcomes was stronger among those carrying the DRD2 risk (A1) allele., Conclusions: This study extends the present literature by providing additional insight into the etiological factors of adolescent drinking behavior. An interaction between a vulnerability gene (DRD2) and a cognitive factor (coping drinking) was found to be related to adolescents' binge drinking and alcohol-related problems., (Copyright © 2011 by the Research Society on Alcoholism.)

Background: Because the effects of susceptibility genes on alcohol use may differ as a function of age throughout adolescence and young adulthood, prospective study designs, in addition to cross-sectional ones are needed in genetic association studies. The short, low activity allele of a polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) in the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) has been related to alcohol dependence. In the current study we tested whether 5-HTTLPR genotype was associated with adolescent alcohol use both cross-sectionally and longitudinally., Methods: Non-regular drinkers (n=202) were selected from Dutch, nationwide sample of adolescents (mean age 13.4 at baseline) who were assessed across five annual waves. Latent growth curve modeling was applied to examine individual development of alcohol use over time, by estimating the initial level of alcohol use at Wave 2 (intercept), and the rate of change in alcohol use across time (slope)., Results: The 5-HTTLPR short allele predicted adolescent's growth (slope) in alcohol use over time. Adolescents with the 5-HTTLPR short allele showed larger increase in alcohol consumption than those without the 5-HTTLPR short allele. 5-HTTLPR genotype was not related to the initial level (intercept) of alcohol consumption. In all analyses we controlled for sex and personality., Conclusions: To gain more insight into the etiological role of genetic determinants of adolescent alcohol use, developmental approaches that distinguish between onset and continuation of drinking should be applied., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Research suggests that people adapt their own drinking behavior to that of other people. According to a genetic-differences approach, some individuals may be more inclined than others to adapt their alcohol consumption level to that of other people. Using a 3 (drinking condition) x 2 (genotype) experimental design (N = 113), we tested whether susceptibility to alcohol-related cues (i.e., seeing someone drink) was related to the variable number of tandem repeats in exon 3 of the D4 dopamine receptor gene. A strong gene-environment interaction showed that participants carrying at least one copy of the 7-repeat allele consumed substantially more alcohol in the presence of a heavy-drinking individual than did participants without this allele. This study highlights that individual variability in sensitivity to other people's drinking behavior may be attributable to genetic differences. Carrying the 7-repeat allele may increase the risk for heavy alcohol use or abuse in the company of heavy-drinking peers.

Background: Remarkably, little attention has been paid to the role of intimate partners and their drinking behavior in relation to adolescent alcohol use. In the current study, we examined associations between adolescent alcohol use and romantic partners' drinking behavior., Methods: A total of 428 families, consisting of both parents and two adolescents (aged 13.4 and 15.2 at Time 1) participated in a prospective study with four annual waves. Correlations and multivariate regressions were used to examine (1) similarity in drinking behaviors of adolescents and intimate partners, (2) whether alcohol use of partners prospectively predicts adolescent alcohol consumption, and (3) whether adolescents who consume alcohol select partners over time who show similar drinking behaviors., Results: (1) Frequency of alcohol consumption of adolescents and of their romantic partners correlated significantly. (2) Alcohol use of partners was not predictive of adolescent alcohol consumption over time, if previous levels of alcohol consumption were taken into account. (3) Adolescents acquired partners with similar drinking behaviors. Gender effects were found; adolescent girls, but not boys, were more likely to become involved with partners who also frequently consumed alcohol., Conclusions: Regarding alcohol consumption, adolescents and their intimate partners were relatively similar in alcohol use. This resemblance is best explained by adolescents' selection of future partner on the basis of alcohol consumption. Less indication was found for influence effects, perhaps due to the transient nature of most adolescent romantic relationships.

Aim: To discuss the current status of gene-environment interaction research with regard to alcohol use and dependence. Further, we highlight the difficulties concerning gene-environment studies., Methods: Overview of the current evidence for gene-environment interactions in alcohol outcomes, and of the associated challenges in gene-environment studies., Results: Attention to the causative roles of gene-environment interactions in alcohol use and dependence is increasing. Studies with twin designs are beginning to examine gene-shared environment effects, and animal studies have investigated gene-environment interaction effects on alcohol intake in primates. Thirteen studies incorporated gene-environment interactions in examining alcohol use or dependence in humans. These studies held a variety of candidate genes and environmental risk factors and their heterogeneity made it impossible to draw firm general conclusions., Conclusions: Challenges for future gene-environment studies are abundant, and consist of, for example, the development of clear theoretical assumptions about neurobiological mechanisms and the recruitment of large longitudinal samples that already start in childhood. Replication is essential to prevent an overload of false-positive results. Despite the difficulties, it is crucial to include gene-environment interactions in future studies in order to unravel the aetiological factors of human alcohol outcomes.

The present study examined whether parental problem drinking affected parenting (i.e., behavioral control, support, rule-setting, alcohol-specific behavioral control), and whether parental problem drinking and parenting affected subsequent adolescent alcohol use over time. A total of 428 families, consisting of both parents and two adolescents (mean age 13.4 and 15.2 years at Time 1) participated in a three-wave longitudinal study with annual waves. A series of path analyses were conducted using a structural equation modeling program (Mplus). Results demonstrated that, unexpectedly, parental problem drinking was in general not associated with parenting. For the younger adolescents, higher levels of both parenting and parental problem drinking were related to lower engagement in drinking over time. This implies that shared environment factors (parenting and modeling effects) influence the development of alcohol use in young adolescents. When adolescents grow older, and move out of the initiation phase, their drinking behavior may be more affected by other factors, such as genetic susceptibility, and peer drinking.

Introduction: The current study investigated partner effects and bidirectional parent-child effects in family alcohol use. Methods: A full family, longitudinal design was used to test the hypotheses. Participants were 428 families, including mothers, fathers, and 2 children. Associations were measured over two waves with a 2-year interval, by means of structural equation modeling. Results: Whereas alcohol use of the younger children was affected by alcohol use of both parents, alcohol use of the older children was only affected by alcohol use of mother. Moreover, although the effects were small, alcohol use of older children affected later alcohol use of both parents. Conclusions: Associations between alcohol use of parents and children seem to be bidirectional. Future studies are needed to find out whether these findings are incidental or structural. If the effects are structural, potential underlying reciprocal processes within the family play a role in the development of adolescent alcohol use. Copyright © 2008 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]