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This study explores a novel approach to enhancing cognitive proficiency by targeting neural mechanisms that facilitate science and math learning, especially mental rotation. The study specifically examines the relationship between upper alpha intensity and mental rotation skills. Although prior neurofeedback research for increasing upper alpha highlights this correlation, mostly with familiar objects, novel chemistry and math learning prompts envisioning unfamiliar objects which question the persistence of this correlation. This study revisits the upper alpha and mental rotation relationship in the context of unfamiliar objects with a single neurofeedback session and examines the efficiency of manual and automatic neurofeedback protocols. Results will provide a basis for integrating neurofeedback protocols into learning applications for enhanced learning. Our study encompassed three cohorts: Group 1 experienced an automatic neurofeedback protocol, Group 2 received a manual neurofeedback protocol, and the control group had no neurofeedback intervention. The experimental phases involved EEG measurement of individual upper alpha (frequency of maximal power + 2 Hz) intensity, mental rotation tasks featuring geometric and unfamiliar molecular stimuli, one neurofeedback session for applicable groups, post-treatment upper alpha level assessments, and a mental rotation retest. The neurofeedback groups exhibited increased levels of upper alpha power, which was correlated with improved response time in mental rotation, regardless of stimulus type, compared to the control group. Both neurofeedback protocols achieved comparable results. This study advocates integrating neurofeedback into learning software for optimal learning experiences, highlighting a single session's efficacy and the substantial neurofeedback protocol's impact in enhancing upper alpha oscillations., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

Neurofeedback techniques provide participants immediate feedback on neuronal signals, enabling them to modulate their brain activity. This technique holds promise to unveil brain-behavior relationship and offers opportunities for neuroenhancement. Establishing causal relationships between modulated brain activity and behavioral improvements requires rigorous experimental designs, including appropriate control groups and large samples. Our primary objective was to examine whether a single neurofeedback session, designed to enhance working memory through the modulation of theta or high-alpha frequencies, elicits specific changes in electrophysiological and cognitive outcomes. Additionally, we explored predictors of successful neuromodulation. A total of 101 healthy adults were assigned to groups trained to increase frontal theta, parietal high alpha, or random frequencies (active control group). We measured resting-state EEG, working memory performance, and self-reported psychological states before and after one neurofeedback session. Although our analyses revealed improvements in electrophysiological and behavioral outcomes, these gains were not specific to the experimental groups. An increase in the frequency targeted by the training has been observed for the theta and high alpha groups, but training designed to increase randomly selected frequencies appears to induce more generalized neuromodulation compared with targeting a specific frequency. Among all the predictors of neuromodulation examined, resting theta and high alpha amplitudes predicted specifically the increase of those frequencies during the training. These results highlight the challenge of integrating a control group based on enhancing randomly selected frequency bands and suggest potential avenues for optimizing interventions (e.g., by including a control group trained in both up- and down-regulation)., (© 2024. The Psychonomic Society, Inc.)

The neuromodulation induced by neurofeedback training (NFT) remains a matter of debate. Investigating the modulation of brain activity specifically associated with NF requires controlling for multiple factors, such as reward, performance, congruency between task and targeted brain activity. This can be achieved using sham feedback (FB) control condition, equating all aspects of the experiment but the link between brain activity and FB. We aimed at investigating the modulation of individual alpha EEG activity induced by NFT in a double-blind, randomized, sham-controlled study. Forty-eight healthy participants were assigned to either NF (n = 25) or control (n = 23) group and performed alpha upregulation training (over 12 weeks) with a wearable EEG device. Participants of the NF group received FB based on their individual alpha activity. The control group received the auditory FB of participants of the NF group. An increase of alpha activity across training sessions was observed in the NF group only (p < 0.001). This neuromodulation was selective in that there was no evidence for similar effects in the theta (4-8 Hz) and low beta (13-18 Hz) bands. While alpha upregulation was found in the NF group only, psychological outcome variables showed overall increased feeling of control, decreased anxiety level and increased relaxation feeling, without any significant difference between the NF and the control groups. This is interpreted in terms of learning context and placebo effects. Our results pave the way to self-learnt, NF-based neuromodulation with light-weighted, wearable EEG systems., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

α Oscillations in sensory cortex, under frontal control, desynchronize during attentive preparation. Here, in a selective attention study with simultaneous EEG in humans of either sex, we first demonstrate that diminished anticipatory α synchrony between the mid-frontal region of the dorsal attention network and ventral visual sensory cortex [frontal-sensory synchrony (FSS)] significantly correlates with greater task performance. Then, in a double-blind, randomized controlled study in healthy adults, we implement closed-loop neurofeedback (NF) of the anticipatory α FSS signal over 10 d of training. We refer to this closed-loop experimental approach of rapid NF integrated within a cognitive task as cognitive NF (cNF). We show that cNF results in significant trial-by-trial modulation of the anticipatory α FSS measure during training, concomitant plasticity of stimulus-evoked α/θ responses, as well as transfer of benefits to response time (RT) improvements on a standard test of sustained attention. In a third study, we implement cNF training in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), replicating trial-by-trial modulation of the anticipatory α FSS signal as well as significant improvement of sustained attention RTs. These first findings demonstrate the basic mechanisms and translational utility of rapid cognitive-task-integrated NF. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT When humans prepare to attend to incoming sensory information, neural oscillations in the α band (8-14 Hz) undergo desynchronization under the control of prefrontal cortex. Here, in an attention study with electroencephalography, we first show that frontal-sensory synchrony (FSS) of α oscillations during attentive preparation significantly correlates with task performance. Then, in a randomized controlled study in healthy adults, we show that neurofeedback (NF) training of this α FSS signal within the attention task is feasible. We show that this rapid cognitive NF (cNF) approach engenders plasticity of stimulus-evoked neural responses, and improves performance on a standard test of sustained attention. In a final study, we implement cNF in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), replicating the improvement of sustained attention found in adults., (Copyright © 2021 the authors.)

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of Quiet Mind Training (QMT) on Alpha power suppression and fine motor skill acquisition among novice dart players. 30 novice dart players were randomly assigned either to a QMT or a control condition. Playing skills and Alpha power suppression were assessed at four time-points: at baseline, retention test 1, under pressure conditions, at retention test 2. Over time, Alpha power suppression increased and radial errors decreased but more so in the QMT condition than in the control condition. In contrast to the control condition, darts performance and Alpha power suppression in the QMT condition were also stable under pressure conditions. Results indicated that QMT successfully suppressed Alpha power and improved implicit learning skills.

Background: Tinnitus is a particularly common condition and can have debilitating psychological consequences for certain people. Although several interventions have been helpful in teaching individuals to better cope with tinnitus, no cure exists at present. Neurofeedback is an emerging treatment modality in tinnitus. Previous studies, utilising an alpha/delta training protocol, have shown promise. However, they were characterised by small sample sizes and a lack of neurofeedback control conditions. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate whether an alpha/delta neurofeedback training protocol, compared to beta/theta neurofeedback or a diary control group, is effective in reducing not only the tinnitus sound perception but also the psychological symptoms associated with the condition., Methods: The study is designed as a three-armed randomised controlled trial. Participants are randomly assigned to a) an established neurofeedback protocol for tinnitus (alpha/delta training), b) an active control group (beta/theta training) or c) a diary control group. In the 4-week intervention period, participants in both neurofeedback groups undergo 10 sessions, whereas participants in the diary control group complete a bi-weekly diary. The primary outcomes are between group differences in tinnitus sound perception change, as measured with the Tinnitus Magnitude Index (TMI), and changes in tinnitus distress, measured with the Tinnitus Handicap Inventory (THI), 4 weeks after the start of the intervention. Secondary outcome measures include changes in tinnitus distress, sleep quality, depressive symptoms and whether neurofeedback leads to specific power changes in the trained frequency bands., Discussion: This is the first randomised controlled trial examining the efficacy of an alpha/delta neurofeedback training protocol in reducing tinnitus sound perception and the distress associated with the condition. Compared to former studies, the present study is designed to assess both the specificity of an alpha/delta neurofeedback training protocol by including an active comparator and beta/theta neurofeedback training, in addition to controlling for placebo effects by the inclusion of a diary control group. This study aims to contribute to an understanding of the influences of both specific and non-specific effects in neurofeedback treatment for tinnitus., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03550430. Registered on 27 May 2018.

Decreases in alpha synchronization are correlated with enhanced attention, whereas alpha increases are correlated with inattention. However, correlation is not causality, and synchronization may be a byproduct of attention rather than a cause. To test for a causal role of alpha synchrony in attention, we used MEG neurofeedback to train subjects to manipulate the ratio of alpha power over the left versus right parietal cortex. We found that a comparable alpha asymmetry developed over the visual cortex. The alpha training led to corresponding asymmetrical changes in visually evoked responses to probes presented in the two hemifields during training. Thus, reduced alpha was associated with enhanced sensory processing. Testing after training showed a persistent bias in attention in the expected directions. The results support the proposal that alpha synchrony plays a causal role in modulating attention and visual processing, and alpha training could be used for testing hypotheses about synchrony., Competing Interests: Declaration of Interests The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Findings of recent studies indicate that it is possible to enhance cognitive capacities of healthy individuals by means of individual upper alpha neurofeedback training (NFT). Although these results are promising, most of this research was conducted based on high-priced EEG systems developed for clinical and research purposes. This study addresses the question whether such effects can also be shown with an easy to use and comparably low-priced Emotiv Epoc EEG headset available for the average consumer. In addition, critical voices were raised regarding the control group designs of studies addressing the link between neurofeedback training and cognitive performance. Based on an extensive literature review revealing considerable methodological issues in an important part of the existing research, the present study addressed the question whether individual upper alpha neurofeedback has a positive effect on alpha amplitudes (i.e. increases alpha amplitudes) and short-term memory performance focussing on a methodologically sound, single-blinded, sham controlled design., Method: Participants (N = 33) took part in four test sessions over four consecutive days of either neurofeedback training (NFT group) or sham feedback (SF group). In the NFT group, five three-minute periods of visual neurofeedback training were administered each day whereas in the SF group (control group), the same amount of sham feedback was presented. Performance on eight digit-span tests as well as participants' affective states were assessed before and after each of the daily training sessions., Results: NFT did not show an effect on individual upper alpha and cognitive performance. While performance increased in both groups over the course of time, this effect could not be explained by changes in individual upper alpha. Additional analyses however revealed that participants in the NFT group showed faster and larger increase in alpha compared to the SF group. Surprisingly, exploratory analyses showed a significant correlation between the initial alpha level and the alpha improvement during the course of the study. This finding suggests that participants with high initial alpha levels benefit more from alpha NFT interventions. In the discussion, the appearance of the alpha enhancement in the SF group and possible reasons for the absence of a connection between NFT and short-term memory are addressed., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Alpha rhythm (8-13 Hz) is linked to relaxed mental state in humans. Earlier reports have shown that individuals can increase their alpha power if provided with a valid feedback, compared to controls who are provided invalid feedback. However, these results remain controversial, partly because controls may be in a different behavioral state, making it difficult to directly compare their alpha power with the valid group. We here address this issue by using an experimental paradigm in which an invalid feedback is given on a fraction of trials, such that both valid and invalid conditions can be obtained from the same participant. Using electroencephalography (EEG), we recorded alpha power from the occipital area from 24 humans (nine females) and played a feedback tone which could be valid (tone frequency proportional to alpha power), invalid (tone sequence from a previous valid trial; participants were unaware of this condition), or neutral (constant tone frequency). We found that during eyes closed-state, neurofeedback did not enhance alpha activity beyond pre-trained state within the experimental duration, probably because of saturation of alpha rhythmicity. However, for participants whose alpha power decreased over time within a trial, valid feedback helped them to sustain alpha more than invalid feedback. Further, alpha increase showed a weak negative correlation with their self-reported attentional load but was uncorrelated with relaxation levels. Our results reconcile many conflicting reports in the neurofeedback literature, and show that even under most stringent control, valid neurofeedback can help participants who are otherwise unable to sustain their alpha activity., (Copyright © 2019 Biswas and Ray.)

The efficacy of neurofeedback is a point of great controversy, because a certain proportion of users cannot properly regulate their brain activities and thereby fail to benefit from neurofeedback. To address the neurofeedback inefficacy problem, the present study is aimed to design and implement a new neurofeedback system that can more effectively and consistently regulate users' brain activities than the conventional way of training users to voluntarily regulate brain activities. The new neurofeedback system delivers external visual stimuli continuously at a specific alpha phase, which is real-time decoded from ongoing alpha wave, to regulate the alpha wave. Experimental results show that the proposed training-free externally-regulated neurofeedback (ER-NF) system can achieve consistent (effective in almost all sessions for almost all users), flexible (either increasing or decreasing peak alpha frequency and alpha power), and immediate (taking or losing effect immediately after stimulation is on or off) modulation effects on alpha wave. Therefore, the ER-NF system holds great potential to be able to more reliably and flexibly modulate cognition and behavior., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

First attempts have demonstrated that the application of alpha/delta neurofeedback in the treatment of chronic tinnitus leads to a reduction of symptoms at the group level. However, recent research also suggests that chronic tinnitus is a decidedly heterogeneous phenomenon, one that requires treatment of distinct subgroups or even on an individual level. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate an individually adjusted alpha/delta neurofeedback protocol. Following previous studies, the delta band fixed between 3 and 4 Hz was chosen as the frequency for inhibition. However, unlike the previous studies, the frequency range for the rewarded alpha band was not fixed between 8 and 12 Hz but rather individually determined according to each patient's specific alpha peak frequency (IAF). Twenty-six chronic tinnitus patients participated in 15 weekly neurofeedback training sessions and extensive pre- and post-tests, as well as follow-up testing 3 and 6 months after training. The main outcome measures were tinnitus-related distress measured with the Tinnitus Handicap Inventory (THI) and Tinnitus Questionnaire (TQ), tinnitus loudness, and pre- and post-training resting-state EEG activity in trained frequency bands. In Results, the neurofeedback protocol led to a significant reduction of tinnitus-related distress and tinnitus loudness. While distress remained on a low level even 6 months after the completion of training, loudness returned to baseline levels in the follow-up period. In addition, resting-state EEG activity showed an increase in the trained alpha/delta ratio over the course of the training. This ratio increase was related to training-induced changes of tinnitus-related distress as measured with TQ, mainly due to increases in the alpha frequency range. In sum, this study confirms the alpha/delta neurofeedback as a suitable option for the treatment of chronic tinnitus and represents a first step towards the development of individual neurofeedback protocols. This clinical trial was registered online at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02383147) and kofam.ch (SNCTP000001313).

Oscillations of the brain's local field potential (LFP) may coordinate neural ensembles and brain networks. It has been difficult to causally test this model or to translate its implications into treatments, because there are few reliable ways to alter LFP oscillations. We developed a closed-loop analog circuit to enhance brain oscillations by feeding them back into cortex through phase-locked transcranial electrical stimulation. We tested the system in a rhesus macaque with chronically implanted electrode arrays, targeting 8-15 Hz (alpha) oscillations. Ten seconds of stimulation increased alpha oscillatory power for up to 1 second after stimulation offset. In contrast, open-loop stimulation decreased alpha power. There was no effect in the neighboring 15-30 Hz (beta) LFP rhythm or on a neighboring array that did not participate in closed-loop feedback. Analog closed-loop neurostimulation might thus be a useful strategy for altering brain oscillations, both for basic research and the treatment of neuro-psychiatric disease., Competing Interests: ASW, EKM, AM, and DKF are named inventors on a patent application (US Patent application 62582466, "TECHNIQUES FOR CLOSED-LOOP NEUROSTIMULATION AND RELATED SYSTEMS AND METHODS") relevant to this work. ASW has received consulting income from Medtronic, Circuit Therapeutics, and LivaNova. He has also received research device donations from Medtronic. None of these companies were in any way involved with the present work. All other authors report no relevant financial conflicts of interest. This does not alter our adherence to PLoS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

Neural networks interaction was studied in healthy men (20-35 years old) who underwent 20 sessions of EEG biofeedback training outside the MRI scanner, with concurrent fMRI-EEG scans at the beginning, middle, and end of the course. The study recruited 35 subjects for EEG biofeedback, but only 18 of them were considered as "successful" in self-regulation of target EEG bands during the whole course of training. Results of fMRI analysis during EEG biofeedback are reported only for these "successful" trainees. The experimental group (N = 23 total, N = 13 "successful") upregulated the power of alpha rhythm, while the control group (N = 12 total, N = 5 "successful") beta rhythm, with the protocol instructions being as for alpha training in both. The acquisition of the stable skills of alpha self-regulation was followed by the weakening of the irrelevant links between the cerebellum and visuospatial network (VSN), as well as between the VSN, the right executive control network (RECN), and the cuneus. It was also found formation of a stable complex based on the interaction of the precuneus, the cuneus, the VSN, and the high level visuospatial network (HVN), along with the strengthening of the interaction of the anterior salience network (ASN) with the precuneus. In the control group, beta enhancement training was accompanied by weakening of interaction between the precuneus and the default mode network, and a decrease in connectivity between the cuneus and the primary visual network (PVN). The differences between the alpha training group and the control group increased successively during training. Alpha training was characterized by a less pronounced interaction of the network formed by the PVN and the HVN, as well as by an increased interaction of the cerebellum with the precuneus and the RECN. The study demonstrated the differences in the structure and interaction of neural networks involved into alpha and beta generating systems forming and functioning, which should be taken into account during planning neurofeedback interventions. Possibility of using fMRI-guided biofeedback organized according to the described neural networks interaction may advance more accurate targeting specific symptoms during neurotherapy.

Real-time fMRI neurofeedback (rtfMRI-nf) with simultaneous EEG allows volitional modulation of BOLD activity of target brain regions and investigation of related electrophysiological activity. We applied this approach to study correlations between thalamic BOLD activity and alpha EEG rhythm. Healthy volunteers in the experimental group (EG, n = 15) learned to upregulate BOLD activity of the target region consisting of the mediodorsal (MD) and anterior (AN) thalamic nuclei using rtfMRI-nf during retrieval of happy autobiographical memories. Healthy subjects in the control group (CG, n = 14) were provided with a sham feedback. The EG participants were able to significantly increase BOLD activities of the MD and AN. Functional connectivity between the MD and the inferior precuneus was significantly enhanced during the rtfMRI-nf task. Average individual changes in the occipital alpha EEG power significantly correlated with the average MD BOLD activity levels for the EG. Temporal correlations between the occipital alpha EEG power and BOLD activities of the MD and AN were significantly enhanced, during the rtfMRI-nf task, for the EG compared to the CG. Temporal correlations with the alpha power were also significantly enhanced for the posterior nodes of the default mode network, including the precuneus/posterior cingulate, and for the dorsal striatum. Our findings suggest that the temporal correlation between the MD BOLD activity and posterior alpha EEG power is modulated by the interaction between the MD and the inferior precuneus, reflected in their functional connectivity. Our results demonstrate the potential of the rtfMRI-nf with simultaneous EEG for noninvasive neuromodulation studies of human brain function., (© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Several studies showed the effectiveness of alpha/theta (A/T) neurofeedback training in treating some psychiatric conditions. Despite the evidence of A/T effectiveness, the psychological and neurobiological bases of its effects is still unclear. The aim of the present study was to explore the usefulness of the A/T training in increasing mentalization in a non-clinical sample. The modifications of electroencephalographic (EEG) functional connectivity in Default Mode Network (DMN) associated with A/T training were also investigated. Forty-four subjects were enrolled in the study and randomly assigned to receive ten sessions of A/T training [neurofeedback group (NFG) = 22], or to act as controls [waiting list group (WLG) = 22]. All participants were administered the mentalization questionnaire (MZQ) and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R). In the post training assessment, compared to WLG, NFG showed a significant increase of MZQ total scores (3.94 ± 0.73 vs. 3.53 ± 0.77; F 1;43 = 8.19; p = 0.007; d = 0.863). Furthermore, A/T training was also associated with a significant increase of EEG functional connectivity in several DMN brain areas (e.g. Posterior Cingulate Cortex). Taken together our results support the usefulness of the A/T training in enhancing mentalization and DMN connectivity.

In the present study, we investigated the effects of upper alpha based neurofeedback (NF) training on electrical brain activity and cognitive functions in stroke survivors. Therefore, two single chronic stroke patients with memory deficits (subject A with a bilateral subarachnoid hemorrhage; subject B with an ischemic stroke in the left arteria cerebri media) and a healthy elderly control group (N = 24) received up to ten NF training sessions. To evaluate NF training effects, all participants performed multichannel electroencephalogram (EEG) resting measurements and a neuropsychological test battery assessing different cognitive functions before and after NF training. Stroke patients showed improvements in memory functions after successful NF training compared to the pre-assessment. Subject B had a pathological delta (0.5-4 Hz) and upper alpha (10-12 Hz) power maximum over the unaffected hemisphere before NF training. After NF training, he showed a more bilateral and "normalized" topographical distribution of these EEG frequencies. Healthy participants as well as subject A did not show any abnormalities in EEG topography before the start of NF training. Consequently, no changes in the topographical distribution of EEG activity were observed in these participants when comparing the pre- and post-assessment. Hence, our results show that upper alpha based NF training had on the one hand positive effects on memory functions, and on the other hand led to cortical "normalization" in a stroke patient with pathological brain activation patterns, which underlines the potential usefulness of NF as neurological rehabilitation tool.

The aim of the present study was to explore the usefulness of the alpha/theta (A/T) training in reducing Food Craving (FC) in a non-clinical sample. The modifications of electroencephalographic (EEG) power spectra associated with A/T training was also investigated. Fifty subjects were enrolled in the study and randomly assigned to receive ten sessions of A/T training [neurofeedback group (NFG)=25], or to act as controls [waiting list group (WLG)=25]. All participants were administered the Food Cravings Questionnaire-Trait, the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised. In the post training assessment, compared to the WLG, the NFG showed a significant reduction of intentions and plans to consume food (F 1; 49 =4.90; p=.033; d=0.626) and of craving as a physiological state (F 1; 49 =8.09; p=.007; d=803). In NFG, changes in FC persisted after 4months follow-up. Furthermore, A/T training was associated with significant a increase of resting EEG alpha power in several brain areas involved in FC (e.g., insula) and food cue reactivity (e.g., parahippocampal gyrus, inferior and superior temporal gyrus). Taken together, our results showed that ten sessions of A/T training are associated with a decrease of self-reported FC in a non-clinical sample. These findings suggest that this brain-directed intervention may be useful in the treatment of dysfunctional eating behaviors characterized by FC., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Despite recent attempts to use electroencephalogram (EEG) neurofeedback (NFB) as a tool for rehabilitation of motor stroke, its potential for improving neurological impairments of attention-such as visuospatial neglect-remains underexplored. It is also unclear to what extent changes in cortical oscillations contribute to the pathophysiology of neglect, or its recovery. Utilizing EEG-NFB, we sought to causally manipulate alpha oscillations in 5 right-hemisphere stroke patients in order to explore their role in visuospatial neglect. Patients trained to reduce alpha oscillations from their right posterior parietal cortex (rPPC) for 20 minutes daily, over 6 days. Patients demonstrated successful NFB learning between training sessions, denoted by improved regulation of alpha oscillations from rPPC. We observed a significant negative correlation between visuospatial search deficits (i.e., cancellation test) and reestablishment of spontaneous alpha-rhythm dynamic range (i.e., its amplitude variability). Our findings support the use of NFB as a tool for investigating neuroplastic recovery after stroke and suggest reinstatement of intact parietal alpha oscillations as a promising target for reversing attentional deficits. Specifically, we demonstrate for the first time the feasibility of EEG-NFB in neglect patients and provide evidence that targeting alpha amplitude variability might constitute a valuable marker for clinical symptoms and self-regulation.

Children with learning disabilities (LD) frequently have an EEG characterized by an excess of theta and a deficit of alpha activities. NFB using an auditory stimulus as reinforcer has proven to be a useful tool to treat LD children by positively reinforcing decreases of the theta/alpha ratio. The aim of the present study was to optimize the NFB procedure by comparing the efficacy of visual (with eyes open) versus auditory (with eyes closed) reinforcers. Twenty LD children with an abnormally high theta/alpha ratio were randomly assigned to the Auditory or the Visual group, where a 500 Hz tone or a visual stimulus (a white square), respectively, was used as a positive reinforcer when the value of the theta/alpha ratio was reduced. Both groups had signs consistent with EEG maturation, but only the Auditory Group showed behavioral/cognitive improvements. In conclusion, the auditory reinforcer was more efficacious in reducing the theta/alpha ratio, and it improved the cognitive abilities more than the visual reinforcer.

Objective: Neurofeedback training of motor cortex activations with brain-computer interface systems can enhance recovery in stroke patients. Here we propose a new approach which trains resting-state functional connectivity associated with motor performance instead of activations related to movements., Methods: Ten healthy subjects and one stroke patient trained alpha-band coherence between their hand motor area and the rest of the brain using neurofeedback with source functional connectivity analysis and visual feedback., Results: Seven out of ten healthy subjects were able to increase alpha-band coherence between the hand motor cortex and the rest of the brain in a single session. The patient with chronic stroke learned to enhance alpha-band coherence of his affected primary motor cortex in 7 neurofeedback sessions applied over one month. Coherence increased specifically in the targeted motor cortex and in alpha frequencies. This increase was associated with clinically meaningful and lasting improvement of motor function after stroke., Conclusions: These results provide proof of concept that neurofeedback training of alpha-band coherence is feasible and behaviorally useful., Significance: The study presents evidence for a role of alpha-band coherence in motor learning and may lead to new strategies for rehabilitation., (Copyright © 2014 International Federation of Clinical Neurophysiology. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Alpha/theta neurofeedback training is supposed to enhance cognitive performance as well as alleviate psychiatric disorders. Sleep during this training is regarded a confounding factor, although it is usually not controlled. Here, the amount of sleep, the impact of sleep on frequency results and the validity of subjective judgments of having fallen asleep were investigated. 40 healthy young subjects participated in 31 training units of real or mock feedback. It turned out that stage 2 sleep occurred in 10-14 % of training time, in 95 % of the subjects and in 1/3 of all training units. Sleep significantly influenced the theta/alpha ratio and theta but not alpha amplitudes. Only about 2/3 of the subjective judgements were correct and no more than 13 % of the participants could reliably identify sleep. These data demonstrate that sleep can easily occur during alpha/theta neurofeedback training and should be controlled by objective means.

Standardized neurofeedback (NF) protocols have been extensively evaluated in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, such protocols do not account for the large EEG heterogeneity in ADHD. Thus, individualized approaches have been suggested to improve the clinical outcome. In this direction, an open-label pilot study was designed to evaluate a NF protocol of relative upper alpha power enhancement in fronto-central sites. Upper alpha band was individually determined using the alpha peak frequency as an anchor point. 20 ADHD children underwent 18 training sessions. Clinical and neurophysiological variables were measured pre- and post-training. EEG was recorded pre- and post-training, and pre- and post-training trials within each session, in both eyes closed resting state and eyes open task-related activity. A power EEG analysis assessed long-term and within-session effects, in the trained parameter and in all the sensors in the (1-30) Hz spectral range. Learning curves over sessions were assessed as well. Parents rated a clinical improvement in children regarding inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Neurophysiological tests showed an improvement in working memory, concentration and impulsivity (decreased number of commission errors in a continuous performance test). Relative and absolute upper alpha power showed long-term enhancement in task-related activity, and a positive learning curve over sessions. The analysis of within-session effects showed a power decrease ("rebound" effect) in task-related activity, with no significant effects during training trials. We conclude that the enhancement of the individual upper alpha power is effective in improving several measures of clinical outcome and cognitive performance in ADHD. This is the first NF study evaluating such a protocol in ADHD. A controlled evaluation seems warranted due to the positive results obtained in the current study.

The minimization of the non-specific factors of neurofeedback (NF) is an important aspect to further advance in the understanding of the effects of these types of procedures. This paper investigates the NF effects of a single session (25 min) of individual upper alpha enhancement following a sham-controlled experimental design (19 healthy participants). We measured immediate effects after the training and 1-day lasting EEG effects (eyes closed resting state and task-related activity), as well as the event-locked EEG effects during the execution of a mental rotation task. These metrics were computed in trained (upper alpha) and non-trained EEG parameters (lower alpha and lower beta). Several cognitive functions were assessed such as working memory and mental rotation abilities. The NF group showed increased upper alpha power after training in task-related activity (not significantly sustained 1 day after) and higher pre-stimulus power during the mental rotation task. Both groups improved cognitive performance, with a more prominent improvement for the NF group, however a single session seems to be insufficient to yield significant differences between groups. A higher number of training sessions seems necessary to achieve long-lasting effects on the electrophysiology and to enhance the behavioral effects.

Objective: Electroencephalographic (EEG) neurofeedback training has been shown to produce plastic modulations in salience network and default mode network functional connectivity in healthy individuals. In this study, we investigated whether a single session of neurofeedback training aimed at the voluntary reduction of alpha rhythm (8-12 Hz) amplitude would be related to differences in EEG network oscillations, functional MRI (fMRI) connectivity, and subjective measures of state anxiety and arousal in a group of individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)., Method: Twenty-one individuals with PTSD related to childhood abuse underwent 30 min of EEG neurofeedback training preceded and followed by a resting-state fMRI scan., Results: Alpha desynchronizing neurofeedback was associated with decreased alpha amplitude during training, followed by a significant increase ('rebound') in resting-state alpha synchronization. This rebound was linked to increased calmness, greater salience network connectivity with the right insula, and enhanced default mode network connectivity with bilateral posterior cingulate, right middle frontal gyrus, and left medial prefrontal cortex., Conclusion: Our study represents a first step in elucidating the potential neurobehavioural mechanisms mediating the effects of neurofeedback treatment on regulatory systems in PTSD. Moreover, it documents for the first time a spontaneous EEG 'rebound' after neurofeedback, pointing to homeostatic/compensatory mechanisms operating in the brain., (© 2013 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

This is one of a series of investigations comparing two EEG-neurofeedback protocols - Alpha/theta (A/T) and Sensory-Motor Rhythm (SMR) - for performance enhancement in the Arts, here with the focus on music. The original report (Egner and Gruzelier, 2003) established a beneficial outcome for elite conservatoire musicians following A/T training in two investigations. Subsequently this A/T advantage was replicated for both advanced instrumental and novice singing abilities, including improvisation, while SMR training benefited novice performance only (Gruzelier, Holmes et al., 2014). Here we report a replication of the latter study in university instrumentalists who as before were novice singers with one design change - post-training performances were conducted within the tenth final session instead of on a subsequent occasion. As before expert judges rated the domains of Creativity/Musicality, Communication/Presentation and Technique. The proximity to training of the music performances within the last session likely compromised gains from A/T learning, but perhaps reinforced the impact of SMR training efficacy. In support of validation there was evidence of strong within- and across-session A/T learning and positive linear trends for across-session SMR/theta and SMR/beta-2 ratio learning. In support of mediation learning correlated with music performance. The A/T outcome was markedly discrepant from previous studies and should dispel any impression that the hypnogogic state itself is transferred to the performance context. The effects of SMR ratio training are consistent with an impact on lower-order abilities required in novice performance such as sustained attention and memory, and benefiting all three domains of music assessment., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

It is claimed that neurofeedback (NF) is an effective treatment for a variety of psychiatric disorders. NF, within an operant conditioning framework, helps individuals to regulate cortical electroencephalographic (EEG) activity while receiving feedback from a visual or acoustic signal. For example, changing asymmetry between left and right frontal brain alpha activity by NF, is claimed to be an efficacious treatment for major depressive disorder. However, the specificity of this intervention in occasioning electrophysiological changes at target locations and target wave-frequencies, and its relation to changes in mood, has not been established. During a single session of NF, it was tested if the balance between left and right frontal alpha-activity could be changed, regardless of direction, in 40 healthy females. Furthermore, we investigated whether this intervention was electrophysiologically specific and if it was associated with changes in mood. Participants were able to decrease or increase frontal alpha-asymmetry during the intervention. However, no changes in mood were observed. Changes in EEG activity were specific in terms of location and wave-frequency., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

As one in a series on the impact of EEG-neurofeedback in the performing arts, we set out to replicate a previous dance study in which alpha/theta (A/T) neurofeedback and heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback enhanced performance in competitive ballroom dancers compared with controls. First year contemporary dance conservatoire students were randomised to the same two psychophysiological interventions or a choreology instruction comparison group or a no-training control group. While there was demonstrable neurofeedback learning, there was no impact of the three interventions on dance performance as assessed by four experts. However, HRV training reduced anxiety and the reduction correlated with improved technique and artistry in performance; the anxiety scale items focussed on autonomic functions, especially cardiovascular activity. In line with the putative impact of hypnogogic training on creativity A/T training increased cognitive creativity with the test of unusual uses, but not insight problems. Methodological and theoretical implications are considered., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Alpha/theta (A/T) and sensory-motor rhythm (SMR) neurofeedback were compared in university instrumentalists who were novice singers with regard to prepared and improvised instrumental and vocal performance in three music domains: creativity/musicality, technique and communication/presentation. Only A/T training enhanced advanced playing seen in all three domains by expert assessors and validated by correlations with learning indices, strongest with Creativity/Musicality as shown by Egner and Gruzelier (2003). Here A/T gains extended to novice performance - prepared vocal, improvised vocal and instrumental - and were recognised by a lay audience who judged the prepared folk songs. SMR learning correlated positively with Technical Competence and Communication in novice performance, in keeping with SMR neurofeedback's known impact on lower-order processes such as attention, working memory and psychomotor skills. The importance of validation through learning indices was emphasised in the interpretation of neurofeedback outcome., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Peripheral visual performance is an important ability for everyone, and a positive inter-individual correlation is found between the peripheral visual performance and the alpha amplitude during the performance test. This study investigated the effect of alpha neurofeedback training on the peripheral visual performance. A neurofeedback group of 13 subjects finished 20 sessions of alpha enhancement feedback within 20 days. The peripheral visual performance was assessed by a new dynamic peripheral visual test on the first and last training day. The results revealed that the neurofeedback group showed significant enhancement of the peripheral visual performance as well as the relative alpha amplitude during the peripheral visual test. It was not the case in the non-neurofeedback control group, which performed the tests within the same time frame as the neurofeedback group but without any training sessions. These findings suggest that alpha neurofeedback training was effective in improving peripheral visual performance. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to show evidence for performance improvement in peripheral vision via alpha neurofeedback training.

Objective: The study was conducted to determine if alpha brain-wave neurofeedback training can have positive psychological results by reducing anxiety and other psychopathology., Method: The cohort participated in alpha brain-wave neurofeedback training for 76 minutes (day 1) to 120 or more minutes (days 5-7) daily for 7 days. Electroencephalogram (EEG) electrodes were attached to the head with conductive gel according to the 10-20 International Electrode Placement System. During training, participants were seated in a comfortable armchair within a soundproof and lightproof room. Brain-wave signals were amplified for processing by analog-to-digital converters and polygraphs, then filtered to the pure delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma bands as well as subbands of these bands of the EEG. For 2-minute epochs, trainees sat with their eyes closed in the dark listening to their feedback tones as the filtered alpha brain-wave EEG signals controlled the loudness of the tones. Then a "ding" sounded and the tones stopped. For 8 seconds, a monitor lit up with dimly illuminated, static numbers, indicating the strength of their alpha brain waves, after which the feedback tones resumed and the process was repeated., Participants: 40 adult volunteers were recruited from the aboriginal population (First Nations, Métis, and Inuit) of Canada. The cohort ranged in age from 25 to 60 years and included males and females., Setting: The study was conducted at Biocybernaut Institute of Canada in Victoria, British Columbia., Primary Outcome Measures: Data was obtained to determine the effectiveness of this training by giving four psychological tests (Minnesota Multi-Phasic Personality Inventory, and the trait forms of the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List, Clyde Mood Scale, and Profile of Mood States) on the first day prior to commencing training and on the seventh day upon completion of the training. EEG data was also compiled throughout the training and analyzed as a factor of the training process., Results: Postintervention data showed positive results with reduction of psychopathology when compared to the data from testing prior to the training. Analysis of this data showed improvement in several areas of psychopathology., Conclusion: Alpha brain-wave neurofeedback training daily for 7 days does have positive psychological results in adult male and female Canadian aboriginals as measured by data from four psychological tests on the participants.

In this study, the individually determined upper alpha frequency band in EEG (electroencephalogram) was investigated as a neurofeedback parameter. Fourteen subjects were trained on five sessions within 1 week by means of feedback dependent on the current upper alpha amplitude. On the first and fifth session, cognitive ability was tested by a mental rotation test. As a result, eleven of the fourteen subjects showed significant training success. Individually determined upper alpha was increased independently of other frequency bands. The enhancement of cognitive performance was significantly larger for the neurofeedback group than for a control group who did not receive feedback. Thus, enhanced cognitive control went along with an increased upper alpha amplitude that was found in the neurofeedback group only., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)