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The disciplinary boundaries between Balkan Studies and Near East and/or Middle East Studies 1 were basically drawn in the course of the 19 th and the beginning of the 20 th century within a certain political framework and as results of European political interests. Arabic and Islamic Studies were considered as the study of the culturally and religiously other. Balkan Studies in this period of time were conceived as “the orient within” 2 . The dissolution of the Habsburg and the Ottoman Empires by the end of World War I changed the political landscape. Near East Studies received the flavour of British and French Colonial Studies, whereas the German Reich was interested to explore the designated food deliverer, the Balkans, within its concept of Grosraumpolitik. After 1945 the situation again changed for

This paper tells the story of the ephemeral and relatively fleeting use of Holyrood Park, Edinburgh between 1914 and 1919. The domestic life and training regime of the units who camped in the Park, in particular the 10th (Liverpool Scottish) King’s Regiment (Liverpool), is described using contemporary documents and photographs. The practice trenches and anti-invasion defences in the south-east corner of the Park are described, along with the large First World War infantry training camp, rediscovered during the research, in the grounds of Duddingston House. The paper also considers the interaction between the soldiery and the city, within the constraints imposed by paucity of evidence – with individuals and with the city’s civic life and its role in the war. Light is cast on socially conservative and morally judgemental views of the interaction between soldiers and young women – the ‘khaki fever’ of the early months of the war.

Written in the late 1930s, Rebecca West’s Black Lamb and Grey Falcon: A Journey Through Yugoslavia (1941) is shaped on every level by the Great War. West investigates the causes of the conflict in the place from which it originated, calling urgently for a defence of the settlement of Versailles. Her project of persuasion raises general entertainment to the heights of modernist epic and contemporary myth. At the same time, the text’s critique of imperial interference shows the inconsistent global application of the principle of the ‘rights of small nations’. Using the frameworks of psychoanalysis popularized in the anglophone world during the 1920s, West identifies individual struggle with the dilemmas of history, and diagnoses the nature and limits of social change that followed in the wake of 1918.

The Georgian Legion of World War I represented one of the most peculiar and informative implementations of Germany’s grand scheme to win the war by revolution and, eventually, to replace enemy imperial rule. While the topic is only scarcely known in research, abundant sources exist to tell the unfortunate story of hundreds of refugees turned into soldiers by Georgian nationalists and German officers. The endeavour was later assessed as widely unsuccessful by its participants and by historians, but its true value can only be uncovered by embedding the legion into its wider context, as an integral component of Germany’s “programme for revolution”, as well as by drawing parallels to similar undertakings. This article furthermore aims to discuss the origins of the idea for the initiative and to draw conclusions about its seeming failure, while providing an alternative perspective on the project. By discussing its implementation and motives, the analysis of the legion can deliver insight on the underlying motives of German wartime foreign policy and on the collaboration of nationalist actors as agents of German imperialism, while being simultaneous promoters of their genuine revolutionary cause.

This article asks why the concept of ‘Nächstenliebe’ or ‘love of neighbour’ became a source of contestation between Jewish and Christian intellectuals between the fin-de-siècle and the First World War. For some Christian intellectuals, highlighting differences between an apparently more expansive Christian love of neighbour and an allegedly narrower Jewish conception could provide a novel means of questioning how fully Jews could belong as members of German society. As the article shows, Jewish intellectuals did not simply seek to counter those definitions that claimed a moral superiority for Christian Nächstenliebe, however. Some went further and argued that Jewish ideas of neighbourly love were actually the more cosmopolitan, in contrast to Christian conceptions that had become increasingly self-serving and sectarian. In some instances, these Jewish intellectuals used such arguments about love of neighbour to make the case for Zionism. The article then investigates how the First World War affected these ideas about Nächstenliebe. It suggests that the war furthered the ‘negative integration’ of German society in ways that left little room for love between diverse kinds of German.

Scholars have long considered the post–World War I minorities regime—defined and encompassed by a series of “minorities treaties” with various Balkan, Eastern European, and Middle Eastern states and the construction of a “Minorities Commission” in the new League of Nations to enforce them—as a basically well-intentioned, if ultimately misguided, first step toward the concept of internationally guaranteed human rights. In fact, the minorities treaties had vanishingly little to do with European concern for actual minority populations anywhere. Rather, they represented a new iteration of an imperial vision that had marked relations between the Ottoman Empire and the European powers of Britain, France, and Russia since the late eighteenth century: the idea, enshrined in the so-called capitulations agreements, that non-Muslim communities within the Ottoman sphere could represent a site of European economic, political, and military intervention and redefine the Ottoman state—and now the emerging nation-states of Eastern Europe, the Balkans, Anatolia, and the Levant—as possessing a lesser form of sovereignty.

This article offers an analysis of the representation of captivity in Ahmed Ben Mostapha, goumier. The novel, published by Algerian writer Mohammed Bencherif in 1920, was partly inspired by his own experience as a prisoner of war during the First World War. Relying on historical, sociological and anthropological sources, the article focuses on the protagonist’s experience as a POW in German camps and in Switzerland. It also proposes a metaphorical interpretation of captivity in the colonial context, reading Ben Mostapha as a “conscript of modernity,” conditioned by French republican ideals. Fi- nally, it examines thought-provoking analogies between colony and camp in Bencherif’s novel.

The article is dedicated to the matter of Turkish prisoners on the Nargin Island in the Caspian Sea during the First World War. According to approximate computations, there were about 50-60 thousand people of Turkish captives in Russia. Some of them were sent to Baku because of the close location to the Caucasus Front and from there they were sent to the Nargin Island in the Caspian Sea. As time showed it was not the right choise. The Island had no decent conditions for living and turned the life of prisoners into the hell camp. Hastily built barracks contravene meet elementary standards, were poorly heated and by the end of the war they were not heated at all, water supply was unsatisfactory, sometimes water was not brought to the prisoner's several days. Bread was given in 100 grams per person per day, and then this rate redused by half. Knowing the plight of the prisoners, many citizens of Baku as well as the Baku Muslim Charitable Society and other charitable societies provided moral and material support to prisoners, they often went to the camp, brought food, clothes, medicines Key words: World War I, prisoners of war, Nargin Island, refugees, incarceration conditions, starvation, charity

The participation of European entomologists from among the Austro- Hungarian army prisoners of World War I in the research of the Siberian and Amur entomofauna is considered. Despite the fact that they were doing this in conditions of lack of freedom, their mass collection yielded appreciable results. The biographical information about Karl Ferdinand Mandl (1891– 1989), Stepan Jurechek (1877–1940), Hermann Frib (1877–1947), Josef Michel (1890–1963) and Alfred Biener (1892(?)–1954), which are known from publications of entomologists processed their collections or materials, is given. Some little-known events from the activities in the South Ussuriysk branch of the Amur department of the Russian Geographical Society in Nikolsk-Ussuriysk, and in the life of Evgenia Nikolaevna Klobukova-Alisova (1889–1962) and Alexei Ivanovich Kurentsov (1896–1975) are described. The translation of memories on this time by A. Biener is included in the Appendix.

The war against fascism was transformed into the Cold War. U.S. imperialism, subdued somewhat by post-First World War isolationism, came into full flower. Washington implemented this sea change in many ways, including the division of the Korean Peninsula.

تتناول هذه الدراسة موقف مجلة المنار قبل الحرب العالمية الأولى، من اليهود والحركة الصهيونية ومشروعها في تأسيس وطن قومي لليهود في فلسطين، خاصة بعد احتلال بريطانيا لمصر عام 1882م، حيث حظيت وسائل الاعلام المصرية بحرية أوسع في الكتابة في الشؤون العثمانية، وقد لجأ إلى مصر عدد من السوريين الذين أصدروا فيها الجرائد والمجلات. وكان من هؤلاء محمد رشيد رضا (1282 –1354هـ/ 1865-1935م) المفكر الإسلامي صاحب ومؤسس مجلة المنار. بدأت المنار في شوال 1315هـ/1898م كجريدة أسبوعية تكونت من ثمان صفحات، ثم تحولت في سنتها الثانية إلى مجلة؛ وقد اهتمت بالشؤون العالمية والإسلامية (العربية والعثمانية). وتزامن ظهورها مع ظهور أعمال الحركة الصهيونية على صفحات الجرائد والمجلات العربية خاصة في مصر؛ على أثر انعقاد المؤتمر الصهيوني الأول عام 1897. وقد تباين الاهتمام بها والتعليق على الحركة الصهيونية من مجلة أو جريدة إلى أخرى؛ فكانت تلك الحركة من الموضوعات التي اهتمت المنار بمتابعتها وفق رؤية قد تبدو مختلفة عن غيرها. واعتمدت دراستنا هذه بشكل خاص على أعداد مجلة المنار خلال المدة المستهدفة في البحث، إلى جانب نماذج أخرى لبعض الجرائد والمجلات التي تساعد في المقاربة او المقارنة بينها وبين المنار. هذا إلى جانب عدد من المصادر المتخصصة المعاصرة لمدة الدراسة وبعض المراجع التي تناولت تاريخ فلسطين والحركة الصهيونية. ورصدت الدراسة ما جاء في المنار حول الحركة الصهيونية وفلسطين، وكانت أغلبها من تأليف العالم الفقيه والسياسي محمد رشيد رضا، الذي كتب بحثا خاصا عن الصهيونية نشره عام 1913. ولم تهدف الدراسة إلى استعراض ومناقشة كل ما كتبه الشيخ رشيد رضا او ما كتبه آخرون عنه أوعن موقفه من الصهيونية والمسألة الفلسطينية برمتها؛ إنما غايتها عرض كتاباته وما تضمنته مجلة المنار، خلال فترة زمنية محددة؛ وفق رؤيا تاريخية تحليلية، بعيدا عن اتخاذ مواقف مسبقة أو كتابات جاءت متأخرة زمنيا؛ وإنما حصرها في الكتابات المعاصرة لمدة الدراسة. This study is an analysis of how Al-Manar magazine viewed the Jews, the Zionist movement and their scheme of establishing a national home for the Jews in Palestine before World War I, particularly after Britain's occupation of Egypt in 1882 when the Egyptian media enjoyed more freedom in writing about Ottoman affairs. Many Syrians settled down in Egypt and established newspapers and magazines. Among these was Mohammad Rashid Rida (1282-1354AH/ 1865-1935CE), the Islamic thinker, owner and founder of Al-Manar magazine. Al-Manar began in Shawwal 1315AH/ 1898CE as an eight-page long weekly newspaper, which then turned into a magazine in its second year. It previously had covered international and Islamic affairs (Arab and Ottoman). Its appearance coincided with that of the activities of the Zionist movement on the pages of Arab newspapers and magazines, especially in Egypt and following the organisation of the first Zionist Congress in 1897. The interest in the magazine and the critics of the Zionist movement varied from one magazine and newspaper to another. The Zionist movement was one of the issues in which Al-Manar showed interest and apparently had a different view of. This study is mainly based on the body of back issues of Al-Manar magazine during the period under cover, together with a sample of issues from other newspapers and magazines used for comparative purposes. The study also used other contemporary sources on the period under cover as well as some major histories of Palestine and the Zionist movement. The study examines what Al-Manar wrote about the Zionist movement and Palestine, most of which was written by the scholar, jurist and politician Mohammad Rashid Rida, who wrote a special paper on Zionism published in 1913. This study does not aim to review and discuss everything written by Sheikh Rashid Rida and what others wrote about him and his views on Zionism and the entire Palestinian question. Its objective is to expose his writings included in Al-Manar magazine, during a specific span of time from an analytical historical perspective. In doing so, it turns away from preconceived positions or other writings that came late in time, instead restricting these writings to contemporary ones on the period under cover.

Cevat Paşa (General Cevat Çobanlı: 1870-1938) was an Ottoman Army officer who played a decisive role in the defence of the Dardanelles Strait against the Allied offensive during the First World War. He had been primarily responsible for the preparation and improvement of defensive plans as the commander of the Çanakkale Fortified Zone, as well as the implementation of these plans during the Allied naval assault of 19 February-18 March 1915. The ultimate failure of the offensive was mainly due to the careful planning and successful execution of defensive measures under the command of Cevat Paşa.

British and Irish attitudes towards their Turkish enemy during the First World War have rarely been explored. Unlike the German ‘Hun’, Turks were praised as ‘clean fighters’, despite overwhelming evidence of the Armenian Genocide. Using largely unexamined press material, this article attributes the ‘clean-fighting Turk’s’ longevity to the sanctity of soldier testimony, where it originated, and the preoccupation with Germany. Both Turkish chivalry, which highlighted German ‘barbarity’ by contrast, and Germano-centric interpretations of the Armenian Genocide offered hitherto unrecognized validation of the United Kingdom’s ‘just war’ in Europe. The First World War was truly global, but Germany dominated the public imagination.

The First World War spurred the United States to acquire – in the words of Woodrow Wilson – ‘incomparably the greatest navy in the world’, and amongst the many problems confronting Britain after 19...

On Saturday 6 November 1915 angry scenes occurred outside the Cunard Line offices in Liverpool when an estimated 600 men from Ireland were prevented from boarding the ocean liner RMS Saxonia for he...

The First World War is often regarded through the prism of commemoration and remembrance of the dead and missing of that conflict, a lost generation. The men and women that returned, especially tho...

Deniz Harbi’nde gemiler için etkili tahrip ve tehdit unsuru olarak kullanımı dünyada kısa sürede yaygınlaşan deniz mayınları, muharebe silahı niteliğini 19. yüzyıl ortasından itibaren kazanmıştır. Osmanlı Devleti, sahip olduğu geniş coğrafyasındaki sahillerini korumak amacıyla deniz mayınlarını envanterine kazandırma ve bunları geliştirme çabasında yer alarak tedarik, üretim ve teşkilat aşamalarını hızla geçirmiştir. Bu yeni muharebe aracının ilk uygulama alanları ise Çanakkale ve İstanbul Boğazları, Selanik, Golos ve İzmir gibi merkezler olmuştur. 20. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde, kıyıdan kontrollü sabit mayınlar geliştirilerek bağımsız olarak atılabilen otomatik mayınların kullanımı yaygınlaşmıştır. Osmanlı Devleti de ilk kez Osmanlı-İtalya Harbi (1911-1912)’nde otomatik deniz mayınını kullanmıştır. 1915 yılından önce Çanakkale Boğazı’ndaki mayın faaliyetleri, akıntılı sularda mayın kullanımı ile ilgili önemli tecrübelerin kazanılmasını sağlamıştır. 1915 Çanakkale Boğaz Savunması’nda sabit kurulan mayın hatları dışında, “serseri mayın” olarak tabir edilen mayın türü de kullanılmıştır. Serseri mayın Birleşik Filo’nun en çok çekindiği unsurların başında gelmiştir. 18 Mart 1915 tarihinde Birleşik Filo’nun mağlubiyetine yol açan en temel faktör; kıyı bataryası ve projektör desteği ile deniz mayınları olmuştur. Bu makalede, 18 Mart 1915 tarihinde Çanakkale Boğaz Savunması’nın zafer ile taçlanmasında en temel unsur olan deniz mayınlarının tarihsel gelişim içerisinde Osmanlı Devleti’ndeki kullanımı ve 1915 yılındaki rolü üzerine durulmuştur.

This article is a historiographic essay that examines some of the scholarly studies that have been published since the opening of the Russian archives and libraries to military historians of the Ro...

World War I and its aftermath produced a particularly vulnerable group of child victims: war orphans. This group included children whose fathers had fallen in battle, who had disappeared, or who had not (yet) returned home. Most of Europe’s war and postwar societies witnessed the massive presence of these child victims, and responded in various ways to rescue them and secure their future survival. This article offers an exploration of the ways in which the Hungarian part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, and then later the post-imperial Hungarian state, became invested in providing care and relief to Hungarian war orphans. In contrast to other groups of child victims, whose parents were blamed for neglecting their parental duties, war orphans as the offspring of ‘war heroes’ profited from the public appreciation of their fathers’ sacrifice for the war effort and the Hungarian nation. The public discourse in the contemporary Hungarian media offers a glimpse into the emergence of a new public visibility of these child victims and of a new recognition of the societal obligation to care for them. Exploring World War I and its aftermath as a telling example of political transformation in the 20th century, the article showcases how war orphans were taken to personify essential notions of war- and postwar destruction, while also capturing visions of postwar recovery. It furthermore examines how welfare discourses and relief practices for Hungary’s war orphans were embedded in contemporary gender norms, notions of proper Christian morality and ethnic nationalism. On this basis, the article assesses the ways in which the case of Hungary’s war orphans not only mirrors the professionalization but also the fundamental transformation of child welfare in the aftermath of World War I.

The authors’ research attention is focused on the specifics of the Australian memorial practices dedicated to the World War I. The statement is substantiated that in the Australian context memorials and military monuments formed a special post-war and post-traumatic part of the visual memory of the first Australian global military conflict. The features of the Australian memorial concept are clarified, the social function of the monuments and their important role in the psychological overcoming of the trauma and bitter losses experienced are noted. The multifaceted aspects of visualization of the monumental memory of the World War I in Australia are analyzed. Monuments and memorials are an important part of Australia’s visual heritage. It is concluded that each Australian State has developed its own concept of memory, embodied in various types and nature of monuments. The main ones are analyzed in detail: Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne (1928–1934); Australian War Memorial in Canberra (1941); Sydney Cenotaph (1927-1929) and Anzac Memorial in Sydney (1934); Desert Mounted Corps Memorial in Western Australia (1932); Victoria Memorials: Avenue of Honour and Victory Arch in Ballarat (1917-1919), Australian Ex-Prisoners of War Memorial (2004), Great Ocean Road – the longest nationwide memorial (1919-1932); Hobart War Memorial in the Australian State of Tasmania (1925), as well as Villers-Bretonneux Australian National Memorial in France dedicated to French-Australian cooperation during the World War I (1938). The authors demonstrate an inseparable connection between the commemorative practices of Australia and the politics of national identity, explore the trends in the creation and development of memorial practices. It is noted that the overwhelming majority of memorial sites are based on the clearly expressed function of a place of memory, a place of mourning and commemoration. It was found that the representation of the memorial policy of the memory of Australia in the first post-war years was implemented at the beginning at the local level and was partially influenced by British memorial practices, transforming over time into a nationwide cultural resource.

This article discusses the offer made by Cemal Pasha in 1915 to Albert Antebi to sell the area in front of the Western Wall in Jerusalem in order to dismantle the nearly thirty houses owned by the ...

This article examines the functions and the significance of picture postcards during World War I, with particular reference to the war in the Ottoman Lands and the Balkans, or involving the Turkish Army in Galicia. After the principal types of Kriegspostkarten – sentimental, humorous, propaganda, and artistic postcards (Künstlerpostkarten) – have been presented, the different theatres of war (Balkans, Galicia, Middle East) and their characteristic features as they are reflected on postcards are dealt with. The piece also includes aspects such as the influence of Orientalism, the problem of fake views, and the significance and the impact of photographic postcards, portraits, and photo cards. The role of postcards in book illustrations is demonstrated using a typical example (F. C. Endres, Die Türkei (1916)). The specific features of a collection of postcards left by a German soldier who served in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq during World War I will be presented at the end of this article.

This essay explains the emergence of a new era in global science and politics through increasing scientific nationalism in the years leading up to World War I. Based upon original archival research, we examine how the cultural geopolitics of international scientific jubilees triggered a major change in the self-representation of Prussian and non-Prussian German universities from delivering individual congratulatory addresses to the demonstration of unity through one joint address and present. The analysis focuses on the first centenary of the Royal Frederick University in Kristiania and the quincentenary of the University of St Andrews, both held in 1911, before discussing how all 21 German universities agreed to convey their felicitations with one voice—as Universitates Germaniae —and one address—an inscribed bronze votive tablet—to the Royal Society in London on the occasion of its 250th anniversary as a chartered institution in 1912. We argue that in the context of growing imperial and economic rivalry between European nation-states, the politicization of these jubilees reinforced scientific nationalism and encouraged a unified appearance of German universities overseas, no less than 41 years after the constitution of the German Empire. By analysing changing material, practical, and imaginative resource ensembles in science and politics, we reveal how the geographical imagination of national unity materialized in the German universities’ use of bronze tablets for conveying academic appreciation and geopolitical messages in London, and at the Groningen tercentenary in 1914, and thereby heralded a new era characterized by a national university system, an escalation of scientific nationalism, and global wars.

Monasteries of the Roman Catholic order of the Carmelites were well-represented in the historic cities of Volhynia (e.g. Berdychiv, Dubno, Vyshnivets, Kisilin, Lutsk, etc.). One of them was built in the Mali Dorohostai village, which currently is a part of the Mlyniv district in Rivne Oblast of Ukraine. This monastery, built in the mid-18th century, was closed in the 1830s, and then adapted by the Russian Tsar for the use of Orthodox Church. During the first World War, it was completely destroyed. The architecture of this monastery is almost forgotten in modern historiography. The recently discovered archival drawings from the first half of the 19th century give a good idea of the stylistic and structural characteristics of the no longer existing monastery.

The Reformed Church District of Kiralyhagomellek was founded in 1921. After the first world war, as a result of the Trianon border change, the church leadership of the part detached from the Trans - Tisza Reformed Church District (Partium) led by Istvan Sulyok, the bishop of Oradea, decided to create a separate diocese. The administrative county boundaries in force today do not match the boundaries of a hundred years ago, it can be attributed to the fact that the dioceses of Satu-Mare and Salaj belonged to the Transylvanian district, so in these dioceses, the Transylvanian hymnbook and choral books edited by Samu Borsay and Gabor Veress were in use. In this period the cantor’s training took place only in Partium and Transylvanian teacher-training institutes. During communism, cantors were mostly prepared privately for the periodic cantor examination. The Oradea Cantor – Training Course in the Reformed Church District of Kiralyhagomellek started in 2006. In my dissertation, I discuss the cantor – training and cantor service in the Partium area, from 1921 to the present day.

Santanu Das, India, Empire, and First World War Culture: Writings, Images, and Songs, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2018, 454 pp., ₹2099. ISBN: 9781107441590 (Paperback).

The article raises questions about the socio-economic policy of the Russian Empire in Turkestan during the First World War, as well as the increase in state taxes on the working-age population to fill the state budget deficit, including the introduction of a special tax on cotton. It is important to deeply study the history of our people, who experienced all the suffering, hardships and deprivation of colonial oppression during the First World War, and to reveal the essence of the economic policy of the Russian Empire in our country

In 1921, Britain legalized marriage between a widow and her deceased husband’s brother. The Deceased Brother’s Widow Act was not, however, an addendum to the 1907 Deceased Wife’s Sister Act. It was passed in the aftermath of World War I to address administrative problems regarding war widows’ pensions. Its significance lies in its role as a microcosm of a range of postwar debates around sex discrimination, women’s access to state welfare, sexual morality, the family, and the declining birthrate, which provoked the British government to reinforce a family model predicated on a male breadwinner and his dependent wife and children.

The first modern publications in Yiddish which were intended for young readers in Eastern Europe—either original works or translations from foreign languages—appeared at the turn of the twentieth century as the sporadic initiatives of a few writers. A more systematic literature for children in Yiddish started relatively late, and was linked to the developing Yiddish school system. A growing number of writers and cultural activists, including Sholem Aleichem and Y. L. Peretz, became gradually aware of the importance and need for appropriate literature for children. Within less than a decade, the Yiddish book market was enriched with a variety of publications focused upon young readers whose ages ranged between 5 and 12 years. These publications included many translations (or adaptations) from foreign languages—either directly or indirectly—as well as original works by known Yiddish writers. The first Yiddish periodicals for youngsters, as well as textbooks, also appeared then, prior to World War I. Yiddishists and publishers established publishing companies for this purpose and initiated pretentious projects of which few were realized, or even partly realized. The current article will review and examine the first initiatives for publishing Yiddish children’s literature and periodicals, who the initiators were and what their purpose was. Also, to what extent these publications were accepted, and their contribution to modern Yiddish literature.

This article is an account of the political mission of Lt Col Robert Edward Archibald Hamilton (later Udny-Hamilton, 11th Lord Belhaven and Stenton, 1871–1950) to the Emir Abd Al-Aziz Al-Saud of Na...

David Nasaw is a historian whose work focuses on early twentieth-century America. Until 2019, he held the Arthur M. Schlesinger chair of history at the Graduate Center of the City University of New...

While Federation in 1901 failed to lodge in the popular imagination, Australians widely embraced the idea that their nation was born at Gallipoli during World War I. Despite its subsequent ubiquity...

The Longer Battle: Australia, World War I and Its Aftermaths At dawn on Saturday 25 April 2020, hundreds of Australians gathered in their driveways to observe a minute of silence to commemorate Anzac Day. In suburbs across the country they found inventive ways to mark the occasion, decorating fences with rosemary and wreaths, letterboxes with paper poppies, and pathways with candles and chalked messages ‘Lest we forget’.