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The contentious issue of cow-calf separation at birth is incongruent with many views on acceptable farming practices, and carries the risk of eroding public trust in the dairy industry if it is not addressed. The available evidence provides little support for the practice, but research on best practices for maintaining cow-calf contact in a way that enhances animal welfare while preserving farm profitability is nascent. In this article, the authors address the research questions that require answers to better inform producers and facilitate their decision-making and prepare the dairy industry to take another evolutionary step forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies have found evidence of pain in the hours following hot-iron disbudding, but little is known about longer-lasting pain following this procedure. Work on humans and rats has shown that lasting pain can have negative effects on the formation and recall of memories. The objective of this study was to assess whether lasting pain following disbudding affects learning and memory in calves. A modified hole-board apparatus was used to assess how quickly calves were able to learn the locations of 4 bottles containing milk dispersed among 11 locations with empty bottles. At 14 d of age and after 6 d of training on this task, calves (n = 30) were randomly assigned to 3 treatments: disbudding with analgesic on the day of the procedure, disbudding with analgesic throughout the study, and sham disbudding. All calves were sedated, given a lidocaine cornual local block and a single injection of an nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Starting on the day after their disbudding treatment, calves were tested daily using the modified hole-board apparatus. After 12 d of testing, the locations of the 4 milk-containing bottles were switched, and calves then relearned the locations of the rewarded bottles over the next 6 daily test sessions. We found general working memory (i.e., short-term memory) and reference memory (i.e., long-term memory) increased over the 12 d of testing, declined when locations were switched on d 13, and then again increased over the final 6 d of testing. We did not find an effect of treatment on any measure, perhaps because there was no lasting pain or because effects were too minor to detect using this test of spatial memory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Calf rearing practices differ among farms, including feeding and weaning methods. These differences may relate to how dairy producers view these practices and evaluate their own success. The aim of this study was to investigate perspectives of dairy producers on calf rearing, focusing on calf weaning and how they characterized weaning success. We interviewed dairy producers from 16 farms in Western Canada in the following provinces: British Columbia (n = 12), Manitoba (n = 2), and Alberta (n = 2). Participants were asked to describe their heifer calf weaning and rearing practices, and what they viewed as successes and challenges in weaning and rearing calves. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and subjected to qualitative analysis from which we identified the following 4 major themes: (1) reliance on calf-based measures (e.g., health, growth, and behavior), (2) management factors and personal experiences (e.g., ease, consistency, and habit), (3) environmental factors (e.g., facilities and equipment), and (4) external support (e.g., advice and educational opportunities). These results provided insight into how dairy producers view calf weaning and rearing, and may help inform the design of future research and knowledge transfer projects aimed at improving management practices on dairy farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many male dairy calves are castrated when reared for beef production, but for dairy breeds the assessment of the longer-lasting pain associated with this procedure has received little scientific attention. In this study we assessed 2 methods: surgical (n = 10 calves) and rubber ring (n = 11). All calves were castrated at 28 d of age using multimodal pain control. During the 8 wk that followed, we recorded wound healing, local inflammation, body weight, milk and calf starter intake, lying time, and wound-directed behavior. Surgical wounds were fully healed on average 4 wk after the procedure, but only 1 calf in the rubber ring treatment fully healed within the 8-wk study. Inflammation was greater after rubber ring castration; skin temperature in the area around the lesion was 1.7 ± 0.35°C (mean ± standard deviation) higher than for the surgical treatment. Compared with surgically castrated calves, those castrated by rubber ring gained less weight over the study period (on average 11.9 ± 5.1 kg less), a difference due in part to lower intake of calf starter (on average 1.8 ± 0.6 kg less). Calves in the rubber ring treatment spent less time lying down (on average 4.2 ± 1.2% fewer scans per day) and licked their lesions more frequently (on average 16.0 ± 3.3 more licks per day). We conclude that the rubber ring calves experienced more pain in the weeks following the procedure and thus recommend that surgical castration be favored for preweaning dairy calves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary aim of this prospective experimental study was to evaluate how the social environment after calving influenced standing behavior in primiparous cows. At calving, primiparous cows were mixed with familiar peers in a low-stocked pen (≤33% stocking density; n = 22) or mixed with unknown older cows at 100% stocking density (n = 20). All study cows were mixed with older cows 3 wk after calving. Time spent standing and perching (standing with only the front feet in the stall) were measured d 1 to 3 after calving using 5-min scan sampling. To evaluate if the low-stocked treatment constituted a low-stress social environment, agonistic interactions at the feed barrier were measured for 90 min following feed delivery for a subsample of cows in both treatments (12 cows/treatment). The daily behavioral time budget, including the 90 min following milking, was examined for this subset of cows. A secondary aim was to assess if the social environment after calving was related to the risk of developing claw horn lesions later in lactation. Sole and white line lesions were recorded at wk 6 and 12 after calving, and cows were categorized as either having or not having at least 1 hemorrhage of severity ≥3 (scale 1 to 5) for each lesion type and assessment. Prolonged standing after regrouping was not observed, and we found no differences in standing time and time spent perching between treatments. Agonistic behaviors directed toward the focal cows occurred less frequently in the low-stocked pen compared with the control. The number and severity of sole and white line lesions increased after calving. At wk 6 postpartum there was a numeric (but not statistically significant) difference between treatments in the proportion of primiparous cows that had white line hemorrhages of severity score ≥3 (low-stress social environment: 20% vs. control: 50%). In conclusion, under the conditions of this study the social environment did not influence standing behavior, but did affect agonistic interactions and may have influenced the risk of claw horn lesions in the weeks following calving. Further studies should evaluate the relationship between the social environment and claw health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive stimulation has been shown to be rewarding and capable of eliciting positive emotions in several species. In contrast to the abundant learning and exploration opportunities available in nature, captive environments can be under-stimulating—with the potential to induce anhedonia and reduce welfare. Zebrafish are now a popular scientific model, in part because of their high cognitive function and sensitivity to environmental manipulations, yet little is known regarding their response to free-choice opportunities to explore. To begin to understand the effect that cognitive enrichment may have on zebrafish behaviour, we housed zebrafish within six tanks (10 fish/110 L tank) for nine months and then removed a divider to expose 10 cm of additional novel tank space. We measured free-choice exploratory behaviour (latency and number of inspections), as well as anxiety/fear (bottom-dwelling) and social behaviour (agonistic behaviour, group cohesion and coordination). We collected video data on each of four days: the day before (baseline), the day of, the day after, and two weeks after divider removal. Using multilevel models, we found that after the divider was removed, zebrafish moved into the novel space on average within 9.7 ± 7.6 s (mean ± SD), and the number of inspections increased on each day observed ( p  < 0.003). We found no evidence of bottom-dwelling ( p  > 0.73), indicating that the manipulation was not likely to have induced a negative emotional response. Furthermore, the opportunity to explore altered social behaviour: reducing agonistic behaviour ( p  = 0.02), and increasing shoal cohesion ( p  = 0.04) and coordination ( p  = 0.04) for up to a day relative to baseline. In light of the fact that their natural habitats would normally include such information-gain opportunities, these results indicate that free-choice exploration may be beneficial for zebrafish welfare. This study thus adds to the growing body of literature on the role cognitive stimulation plays in welfare and indicates that zebrafish are good candidates for further cognitive enrichment research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dairy calves often receive inadequate colostrum for successful transfer of passive immunity and inadequate milk to achieve their potential for growth and avoid hunger, but little is known about what motivates farmers to improve calf management around these concerns. Our aim was to assess if and how access to benchmarking reports, providing data on calf performance and peer comparison, would change the ways in which farmers think about calves and their management. During our study, 18 dairy farmers in the lower Fraser Valley (British Columbia, Canada) each received 2 benchmark reports that conveyed information on transfer of immunity and calf growth for their own calves and for other farms in the region. Farmers were interviewed before and after receiving their benchmarking reports to gain an understanding of how they perceived access to information in the reports. We conducted qualitative analysis to identify major themes. Respondents generally saw having access to these data and peer comparisons favorably, in part because the reports provided evidence of how their calves were performing. Benchmarking encouraged farmers to make changes in their calf management by identifying areas needing attention and promoting discussion about best practices. We conclude that some management problems can be addressed by providing farmers better access to data that they can use to judge their success and inform changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dairy cattle typically live in groups, but individuals within these groups vary in their social behavior. An improved understanding of factors affecting the expression of social behavior may help refine management practices on farms to better accommodate the needs of all individuals within the herd. In this paper, we review (1) some examples of how social behavior is expressed in cattle, (2) commonly assessed personality traits in this species (i.e., sociability and fearfulness) as well as coping style, and (3) how these can affect the expression of social behavior of dairy cattle and in turn their welfare. We also identify understudied social behaviors that personality might influence (social learning, social stress, and social buffering of negative emotions), and that could inform how to improve the welfare of intensively housed dairy cattle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fear is an important welfare problem for farm animals, including cattle. A variety of methods of assessing fear have been proposed, but the reliability and validity of these methods, and ways of improving these characteristics, have received little study. We conducted a series of experiments to assess the consistency of dairy calves’ responses of novel objects and to humans, and to investigate factors that might improve reliability. In the first experiment, latency to touch a novel object had moderate reliability (r s = 0.54), and latency to touch a stationary, familiar human had negligible reliability (r s = 0.26). Experiment 2a used the same test protocols, but with a shorter interval between repeat testing and using different stimuli in the two novel object tests; this change did not improve reliability (e.g. r s = 0.29 for the novel-object test). Reliability for this test was improved (r s = 0.58) in Experiment 2b, when the same object was used in both tests rather than a truly novel object being used the second time. Experiment 2a found ceiling effects in the response to human test associated with the short period during which approach responses were recorded. High reliability was found in Experiment 2b, where the maximum test duration was doubled, but this effect not due to the extended duration. Experiment 3 assessed reliability of a response to human approach at the farm rather than individual level, in this case assessing responses to an unfamiliar person. The proportion of calves making contact with the person was not reliable (r s = 0.22), but the proportion retreating from the person had moderate reliability (r s = 0.52). Reliability was improved by excluding data from calves that had coughs on the day of testing. Conducting multiple tests per individual using different stimuli and reporting health status of the animals are recommended for future research and animal welfare assessment schemes that include measures of fear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dehorning of young calves is a routine management practice used on many dairy farms around the world. Dehorning is done to minimize injuries to stockpersons and other cattle. Most stakeholders not associated with the dairy industry frequently criticize this procedure, arguing that it is painful for the animal, which is supported by scientific evidence. Although research has shown that the pain associated with dehorning can be mitigated through the use of pharmacological tools, many farmers still routinely dehorn their calves without the use of pain mitigation. To elicit views regarding dehorning practices used on calves, including evaluating the importance of this procedure in the overall management of the herd, we conducted in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 37 farmers located in southern Brazil. Participants recognized dehorning as a required management practice but also identified it as a painful procedure, showing empathy for the animals. However, participants appeared to trade off production and welfare goals, frequently stating that high production was more important than the welfare of calves as justification for not using pain mitigation when dehorning. The lack of knowledge regarding means to mitigate pain associated with dehorning was identified as a primary barrier preventing the routine adoption of pain mitigation strategies. It was clear that advisors from public and private extension programs were the primary source of knowledge on dehorning. This work indicates the urgent need for extension efforts to include information on science based best practices targeted at dairy producers and dairy industry professionals advising producers regarding dehorning of dairy calves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free-roaming, ownerless dogs comprise a considerable portion of Brazil's dog population. To address societal concerns for animal welfare, the Brazilian town of Campo Largo established the “community dog program,” where free-roaming dogs are cared for by self-appointed community members, known as maintainers. As this program was established only 2 years ago, little is known about the interactions that take place between these dogs and people residing in these communities. Thus, the objective of this study was to describe the types of human-animal interactions observed between community dogs and humans in Campo Largo. Dog subjects (n = 7), selected by the municipality based on accessibility and community approval, were of mixed breeds, and averaged 4.0 ± 4.16 (mean ± SD) years old, ranging from 1 to 10 years old. Over an 18-day period, each dog was observed through continuous focal sampling for 6 consecutive hours on 3 separate days, with the exception of 2 dogs, Pitoco and Moranguinha, who were observed for 1 and 2 days, respectively. Interactions were presented as medians and total counts and grouped as dog initiated or human initiated. Human-initiated interactions were further distinguished as either stranger initiated and community member initiated. Of the 465 total dog-human interactions, 298 were initiated by dogs and 167 by humans. Dogs interacted with vehicles a total of 157 times. Relative frequency of dog-initiated interactions toward vehicles was much lower than those directed at humans. Although dogs approached humans a median of 9 times per 6-hour observation period, they approached vehicles 0 times per observation day. Vehicle-chasing was observed a median of 2 times per 6-hour period. Avoiding and barking at humans was observed, directed most often toward strangers who had no known previous contact with the dogs. Although humans petted, hugged, and kissed dogs, they were also seen to kick, scold, and attempt to scare them. Both community members and strangers showed affection toward dogs. Kicking was observed a total of 4 times, only performed by strangers. However, strangers were also observed to feed dogs a median of once per observation period. This descriptive study is the first documentation on the types of interactions between community dogs and humans in Campo Largo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lameness assessments are rarely conducted routinely on dairy farms and when completed typically underestimate lameness prevalence, hampering early diagnosis and treatment. A well-known feature of many perceptual tasks is that relative assessments are more accurate than absolute assessments, suggesting that creating methods that allow for the relative scoring of which cow is more lame will allow for reliable lameness assessments. Here we developed and tested a remote comparative lameness assessment method: we recruited nonexperienced crowd workers via an online platform and asked them to watch 2 videos side-by-side, each showing a cow walking, and to identify which cow was more lame and by how much (on a scale of −3 to 3). We created 11 tasks, each with 10 video pairs for comparison, and recruited 50 workers per task. All tasks were also completed by 5 experienced cattle lameness assessors. We evaluated data filtering and clustering methods based on worker responses and determined the agreement among workers, among experienced assessors, and between these groups. A moderate to high interobserver reliability was observed (intraclass correlation coefficient, ICC = 0.46 to 0.77) for crowd workers and agreement was high among the experienced assessors (ICC = 0.87). Average crowd-worker responses showed excellent agreement with the average of experienced assessor responses (ICC = 0.89 to 0.91), regardless of data processing method. To investigate if we could use fewer workers per task while still retaining high agreement with experienced assessors, we randomly subsampled 2 to 43 (1 less than the minimum number of workers retained per task after data cleaning) workers from each task. The agreement with experienced assessors increased substantially as we increased the number of workers from 2 to 10, but little increase was observed after 10 or more workers were used (ICC > 0.80). The proposed method provides a fast and cost-effective way to assess lameness in commercial herds. In addition, this method allows for large-scale data collection useful for training computer vision algorithms that could be used to automate lameness assessments on farm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both male and female calves that are not required in the dairy herd sometimes receive inadequate care on dairy farms. Veterinarians work with farmers to improve animal care, and farmers often view veterinarians as trusted advisors; however, little is known about the attitudes of veterinarians on surplus calves. This study investigated the perspectives of Canadian cattle veterinarians on the care and management of surplus calves, as well as how they view their role in improving care. We conducted 10 focus groups with a total of 45 veterinarians from 8 provinces across Canada. Recorded audio files were transcribed, anonymized, and coded using thematic analysis. We found that veterinarians approached surplus calf management issues from a wide lens, with 2 major themes emerging: (1) problematic aspects of surplus calf management, including colostrum management, transportation, and euthanasia, and suggested management and structural solutions, including ways to improve the economic value of these calves, and (2) the veterinarian's role in advising dairy farmers on the care of surplus calves, including on technical issues, and more broadly working with farmers to better address public concerns. We conclude that veterinarians are concerned about the care of surplus calves on dairy farms and believe that they have an important role in developing solutions together with their farmer clientele. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lameness is a common condition in dairy cows. Free-choice access to pasture may benefit lame cows by providing a softer and more comfortable lying and standing surface; however, the effects of this system on lameness have not yet been explored. We evaluated whether a 7-wk period of free-choice pasture access would improve lameness recovery and affect the lying behavior of lame dairy cows. Lactating Holstein cows, all clinically lame upon enrollment and housed inside a freestall barn, were pseudo-randomly allocated to 1 of 2 treatments (balancing for gait score, parity, and previous lameness history): free-choice access to pasture (n = 27; pasture) or indoor housing only (n = 27; indoor). Cows were gait scored weekly by an observer blind to treatment, using a 5-point numerical rating system (NRS 1 = sound, NRS 5 = severely lame), and hoof inspections were performed by professional trimmers at the start and end of the 7-wk period. Lying behavior was assessed using accelerometers. Cows were categorized as either having a sound period (NRS <2 over 2 consecutive weeks) or remaining lame. Cows spent, on average, 14.8 ± 10.0% (mean ± SD) of their total time on pasture, with much of this time spent outside at night. Over the 7-wk period, 42% of cows had at least one sound period (pasture: 55.6%, indoor: 26.9%), but this was more likely for cows with pasture access (odds ratio = 4.1; 95% confidence interval: 1.1–14.6%). Pasture cows also spent more total weeks sound compared with indoor cows (2.0 ± 0.34 vs. 0.81 ± 0.35 wk). Cows with pasture access lay down for less overall time than indoor cows (13.9 ± 0.29 vs. 12.7 ± 0.28 h/d) and spent more time standing on pasture (74%) than when indoors (47%). These results suggest that lame dairy cows will use pasture when provided with free-choice access, primarily at night, and that access to pasture aids in lameness recovery. We encourage future research to investigate longer-term effects on the recovery of hoof lesions and reoccurrence of lameness cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: This paper aims to identify improvements and gaps in the specific EU regulations for organic farming and whether they promote higher welfare standards for dairy cattle compared to the "minimum standards" set up for conventional farming. Based on the available scientific evidence, we identified areas in the organic regulations where the welfare status of the animals is improved, but some limitations and gaps exist. Animal welfare is an emerging concept in EU law; with the advent of specific regulations intending to protect animals. The approach taken by European lawmakers is to provide "minimum standards" for conventional farming; argued by some as failing to adequately protect animals. In contrast, the EU organic farming regulations aim to "establish a sustainable management system for agriculture" and promote "high animal welfare standards". The first aim of this review was to identify key areas where there are clear improvements in quality of life for dairy cattle housed under the EU organic regulations when compared to the conventional EU regulations. Using the available scientific evidence, our second aim was to identify areas where the organic regulations fail to provide clear guidance in their pursuit to promote high standards of dairy cattle welfare. The greater emphasis placed on natural living conditions, the ban of some (but unfortunately not all) physical mutilations combined with clearer recommendations regarding housing conditions potentially position the organic dairy industry to achieve high standards of welfare. However, improvements in some sections are needed given that the regulations are often conveyed using vague language, provide exceptions or remain silent on some aspects. This review provides a critical reflection of some of these key areas related to on-farm aspects. To a lesser extent, post farm gate aspects are also discussed [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adult dairy cattle show a preference for outdoor spaces during summer nights, but little is known about such preferences for dairy calves. Our aim was to determine the preferences of dairy calves for outdoor access during their first 11 wk of age in summer conditions. Calves were paired (n = 10) at 7 d of age and placed in one of 10 pens (7.32 × 2.44 m, deep bedded with bark mulch), each with equally sized outdoor and indoor areas. All feed was provided indoors; calves had ad libitum access to water, hay and concentrate. During the preweaning period, from 5 to 29 d of age, calves were offered 12 L/d of milk divided into 2 feedings. Calves were weaned stepwise, with milk gradually reduced by 1 L/d from d 30 to 35 of age. Calves were fed 6 L/d from 35 to 51 d of age, then milk was again reduced by 1 L/d so that calves were completely weaned by 56 d of age. Calves remained in the trial until, on average (± SD), 72 ± 2 d of age. Pens were continuously video recorded, and behaviors were scored 3 d/wk using 5-min scan samples. Four observers scored whether calves were inside, outside, lying, standing, in the sun or shade (interobserver reliability = 0.97). Sun and shade could not always be detected, so a proportion was calculated as the amount of time in the sun or shade divided by the total time sun or shade was visible. Calves spent approximately one-third of their time outside throughout the experiment, and time spent outside was affected by several factors. Pairs of calves spent less time outside as the amount of rain increased. During the first 6 wk of age, time spent outside increased, but time spent outside decreased between wk 6 and 7, and remained around 200 min/d from wk 7 to 11. Calves with the highest average daily gain and calves that were approximately 50% white appeared to spend more time outdoors. When outside, calves spent similar amounts of time in the sun and shade during the first 8 wk, but after weaning they appeared to spend more time in the shade. When calves were outside they appeared to spend a greater proportion of their time standing than when they were indoors during the first 4 wk. These results indicate that, when given the option in the summer, calves make use of an outdoor space, but this appears to vary with weather, calf age, average daily gain, and coat color. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Expectations likely encompass both pessimism and sensitivity to reinforcers. • Some animals display stable negative expectations. • These animals seem to adopt avoidance-based coping strategies. • These animals tend to respond more strongly to uncontrollable stressors. • They may also express risk factors associated with mood-related disorders. Humans express stable differences in pessimism that render some individuals more vulnerable to stressors and mood disorders. We explored whether non-human animals express stable individual differences in expectations (assessed via judgment bias tests) and whether these differences relate to susceptibility to stressors. Judgment bias tests do not distinguish pessimism from sensitivity to reinforcers; negative expectations are likely driven by a combination of these two elements. The available evidence suggests that animals express stable individual differences in expectations such that some persistently perceive ambiguous situations in a more negative way. A lack of research prevents drawing firm conclusions on how negative expectations affect responses to stressors, but current evidence suggests a link between negative expectations and the adoption of avoidance coping strategies, stronger responses to uncontrollable stressors and risk of mood-related disorders. We explore implications for animals living in captivity and for research using animals as models for human disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The aim of this study was to determine how individual differences in behavior affect disease risk in Holstein dairy cows housed in two different social environments: (1) a predictable and non-competitive social environment and (2) an unpredictable and competitive social environment. Individual differences in feed intake and feeding behavior before calving were associated with cytological endometritis post-calving; however, the direction and magnitude of these effects were dependent on the social environment. These results provide the first evidence that individual differences in feeding behavior affect cytological endometritis risk differently depending on the social environment. Our aim was to determine whether individual differences in feeding and social behavior in different social environments affect health outcomes in dairy cows. We used eight groups of four animals per treatment assigned to either a 'predictable' or an 'unpredictable' and competitive social environment. Predictable cows were given free access to six feed bins with no change in feed delivery times; whereas, the unpredictable cows were required to share one feed bin with one resident cow and morning feed was delayed 0, 1, 2, or 3 h every other day. On alternate days, the unpredictable cows were also re-assigned to a new bin and a new resident partner. Low daily dry matter intake (DMI) was a risk factor for cytological endometritis in predictable cows (odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval): 0.17 (0.02, 0.53)), but low daily DMI was protective for unpredictable cows (OR: 1.93 (1.09, 4.14)). Although low rate of DMI (kg/min) was a risk factor for cytological endometritis for predictable cows (OR: 4.2 × 10−101 (8.6 × 10−206, 4.8 × 10−30)) it was unrelated to disease for unpredictable cows. There were no associations between feed bin visits or percentage of non-nutritive visits with the likelihood of cytological endometritis. This is the first evidence that individual differences in feeding behavior influence cytological endometritis risk in dairy cows, but the direction and magnitude of these effects is dependent on the social environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The issues of openness, transparency and public engagement about animal research have taken focus in several different countries in recent years. This paper gives an account of a two-day-long expert forum that brought together policy experts and academics from Australia, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States. The aim was to share current governance practices regarding openness and transparency of animal research and to brainstorm ideas for better public engagement. The facilitated conversations were transcribed and analysed to create this report and recommendations that encourage international policy-makers and other stakeholders to engage in genuine dialogue about the use of animals in research. In November 2013, a group of international experts in animal research policy (n = 11) gathered in Vancouver, Canada, to discuss openness and accountability in animal research. The primary objective was to bring together participants from various jurisdictions (United States, Sweden, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Canada and the United Kingdom) to share practices regarding the governance of animals used in research, testing and education, with emphasis on the governance process followed, the methods of community engagement, and the balance of openness versus confidentiality. During the forum, participants came to a broad consensus on the need for: (a) evidence-based metrics to allow a "virtuous feedback" system for evaluation and quality assurance of animal research, (b) the need for increased public access to information, together with opportunities for stakeholder dialogue about animal research, (c) a greater diversity of views to be represented on decision-making committees to allow for greater balance and (d) a standardized and robust ethical decision-making process that incorporates some sort of societal input. These recommendations encourage aspirations beyond merely imparting information and towards a genuine dialogue that represents a shared agenda surrounding laboratory animal use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dairy farms are increasing in size and moving from family to external labor. As such, dairy farmers now have the responsibilities of a human resource manager in addition to caring for their animals. The objective of this paper was to review literature in 5 areas of human resource management of a dairy farm: (1) professional accreditation and professional development, (2) extension activities, (3) the role of the advisor, (4) standard operating procedures, and (5) employee training. Although there has been an increase in research in this area in recent years, this review identified numerous areas for future research, including the relationships between farmers and their advisors and employees, and the role of standard operating procedures on dairy farms. In addition, we suggest that future studies could benefit from increased use of participatory research methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many contemporary dairy cattle housing practices are at odds with societal perceptions of positive animal welfare. The public (i.e., those external to the dairy industry) typically emphasizes the importance of naturalness for dairy cattle, such as through provision of pasture, freedom of movement, and the ability to interact socially with conspecifics. Yet, in the United States, the majority of lactating dairy cattle are reportedly housed without any access to pasture, and almost 39% of dairy farms use tiestalls, which restrict movement and social interactions. In addition to being in conflict with public expectations, a lack of pasture access and restrictive housing systems are also in conflict with the animals' own motivations, which can adversely affect their welfare. For example, dairy cattle are highly motivated to access pasture and show a reduction in oral stereotypies when allowed on pasture after periods of tethering. Calves housed without social contact have cognitive deficits and exhibit increased fear responses to novelty. We argue that the long-term sustainability of the dairy industry will depend on the extent to which housing systems reflect public concerns and the animals' priorities. The adoption of technologies, such as automated feeders and remote monitoring systems, may represent a means to practically promote the animals' natural behavior while simultaneously improving individualized care. Although older generations of the public may consider technological solutions to be a further deviation from naturalness and a departure from dairy farming's agrarian roots, the definition of "naturalness" for younger generations may well have expanded to include technology. As the buying power shifts to these younger generations, the adoption of technologies that promote natural cattle behaviors may be one means toward reconciling the disconnect between public perceptions of animal welfare and contemporary dairy farming practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Affective states, which refer to feelings or emotions, are a key component of animal welfare, but these are also difficult to assess. Drawing upon a body of theoretical and applied work, we critically review the scientific literature on the assessment of affective states in animals, drawing examples where possible from research on dairy cattle, and highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of scientific methods used to assess affective states in animals. We adopt the "valence/arousal" framework, describing affect as a 2-dimensional space (with valence referring to whether an experience is positive or negative, and arousal referring to the intensity of the experience). We conclude that spontaneous physiological and behavioral responses typically reflect arousal, whereas learned responses can be valuable when investigating valence. We also conclude that the assessment of affective states can be furthered using mood assessments and that the use of drug treatments with known emotional effects in humans can be helpful in the assessment of specific affective states in animals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concern over the welfare of captive animals is growing. Captivity is often associated with frequent exposure to stressors, which may be the source of persistent negative affective states. We argue that captivity may lead to depressive-like states and call for more research on this topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This cross-sectional survey aimed to verify farmers’ awareness and knowledge about lameness in grazing dairy cows and to analyze their perspectives and actions intended to control this issue. Farms (n = 44, mean herd size: 42, SD = 11.2) located in southern Brazil were visited twice in 2015. On the first visit the farmers were requested to answer a questionnaire on lameness knowledge (relative importance as a health issue, aetiology, impacts on culling) and management (prevention, treatment and veterinary assistance) on their farms. Farmers were asked to estimate the number of lame cows present on their farms at each visit. All lactating cows on each farm were locomotion scored by a veterinarian to estimate lameness prevalence on both visits. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) were used to test similarity between the veterinarian and farmer estimated lameness prevalence. Mixed-effects linear models were fitted to investigate the associations between veterinarian lameness estimated prevalence and farmers’ answers regarding lameness importance and impacts on culling cows at the farms. On average, farmers underestimated lameness prevalence during both visits; however, when assessing only severe lameness, veterinarian and farmer prevalence lameness ratings were very similar on the second visit (ICC 0.8, 95% CI: 0.6-0.9, n = 43, P < 0.01). The veterinarian’s estimated lameness prevalence was about 10% higher on herds where farmers identified lameness as a primary health issue (40.24%) or as a reason for culling (41.7%) versus farms where the farmer did not recognize lameness as a health concern or reason for culling. Farmers’ most reported causes of lameness on their farms were categorized as hoof trauma, inadequate feeding practices associated with acidosis–laminitis, high moisture on walking surfaces, and individual features of cows. Farmers mentioned frequently that they made use of antibiotics and topical hoof products to treat lame cows; they also reported low use of anti-inflammatories/analgesics and hoof trimming as treatment remedies and no one mentioned adoption of regular preventative measures for lameness. Farmers reported having no training on lameness management, and cited an overall lack of veterinary support to control lameness on their farms. The farmers seemed unaware of the extent of lameness on their farms. Interventions aimed at reducing lameness in small scale herds in this region of Brazil should include a preventative veterinary assistance approach focused, initially, to increase farmers’ knowledge and awareness on lameness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the last few decades, the North American and European dairy industries have been collecting information about lameness and leg injury prevalence on dairy farms and have tried to develop solutions to mitigate these ailments. Few published articles report the prevalence of lameness and leg lesions in areas outside of those 2 regions, or how alternative housing systems, such as compost-bedded packs, affect the prevalence of these maladies. The objectives of this study were to compare the prevalence of lameness and leg lesions on confined dairies that used freestall, compost-bedded packs, or a combination of these 2 systems in Brazil. Data were collected in the autumn and winter of 2016 from 50 dairy farms located in Paraná state, including 12 compost-bedded pack dairies (CB), 23 freestall dairies (FS), and 15 freestall dairies that used compostbedded packs for vulnerable cows (FS+C). A visit to the farm consisted of a management questionnaire, an inspection of the housing areas as well as the milking parlor, and an evaluation of all lactating cows as they exited the parlor for lameness (score 1-5), hygiene (score 0-2), body condition score (score 1-5), and hock and knee lesions (score 0-1). Median 1-way chi-squared test was used to compare production systems. We found no difference between farm types in management practices related to hoof health management or average daily milk production per cow [31 (29-33.9) kg/d; median (quartile 1-3)], percentage of Holstein cattle in the herd [100% (90-100%)], conception rate [35.8% (30.2-38%)], or pregnancy rate [15% (13.7-18%)]. The CB farms were smaller [85 (49.5-146.5) milking cows] than both the FS [270 (178-327.5) milking cows] and FS+C farms [360 (150-541.5) milking cows). The overall prevalence of severe lameness (score 4 and 5) across all farms was 21.2% (15.2-28.5%) but was lower on the CB farms [14.2% (8.45-15.5%)] in comparison to the FS [22.2% (16.8-26.7%)] and the FS+C farms [22.2% (17.4-32.8%)]. Less than 1% of all cows scored on CB farms were observed with swollen or wounded knees (or both), which was lower than either the FS or FS+C farms [7.4% (3.6-11.9%) and 6.4% (2.6-11.8%) of all cows scored, respectively]. The same pattern was found for hock lesions, where the farm-level prevalence within the 3 different housing types was 0.5% (0-0.9%), 9.9% (0.8-15.3%), and 5.7% (2.6-10.9%) for CB, FS, and FS+C farms, respectively. No differences between farm systems were observed for hygiene or body condition score. On average, 2.7% (0.8-10.9%) of lactating cows had a soiled side, 15.4% (2.1-37.4%) had dirty legs and 1.7% (0-9.3%) had dirty udders. The average herd-level body condition score across farms was 2.9 (2.9-3), with 0.86% of the all cows scored having a body condition score <2.5. These results indicate that lameness prevalence on confined dairies in Brazil is high and highlight the need for remedial changes in environmental design and management practices. We found that CB farms in this region had reduced lameness and lesions in relation to FS or FS+C dairies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This cross-sectional study aimed to assess lameness occurrence and to identify the associated risk factors in small-scale grazing dairy herds. Forty four farms (mean lactating herd size was 42 cows, SD = 11.2, range: 28–74) located in the south of Brazil were visited twice, approximately 4 months apart, in 2015. Locomotion was scored in 1633 and 1836 cows at the first and second visit, respectively. Potential risk factors for lameness were assessed through inspection of cows and facilities, and a questionnaire for farmers about herd management practices. Multilevel logistic regressions, using herd as random effect, were fitted to investigate the cow-level risk factors for accumulated incident (not lame at the first visit but lame on the second), chronic (lame on both visits) and recovered (lame at the first visit but sound on the second) cases of lameness. A multilevel linear regression, using municipality as a random effect, was fitted for herd-level analysis. Cumulative lameness incidence between two visits (1110 cows in 41 herds) was 29.6% (range: 0–80); lameness prevalence (n = 44 herds) was 31% (10–70) and 35% (5–76) at the first and second visits, respectively. The odds of incident cases were greater in Holstein cows [odds ratio (OR) = 4.0, 95% confidence interval 2.1–7.6] compared with Jerseys, in cows in parities 2–3 (OR 2.5, 1.4–4.4) or >3 (OR 6.6, 3.3–13.1) relative to parity 1, in cows having a low body condition score (BCS) of 2–2.75 or 3 on the first visit (OR 2, 1.1–3.7), and in cows with observed hoof abnormalities (OR 2.5, 1.3–4.7). Similar associations were found for chronic cases, with Holstein and crossbred cows having greater odds of lameness, compared to Jersey, and chronic cases being more likely in cows with increasing parity, with BCS at first visit of 2–2.75, and with presence of hoof abnormalities. Jersey or crossbred cows (OR 3.2, 1.3–8.1) and cows in parity 1–2 (OR 3.6, 1.6–8.4) had higher probability of recovery from lameness. Having a herd composed of Holstein cows was associated with 13.5% (CI 4.3–22.8) greater incidence of lameness (n = 35). For every 1 km/h increase in the average speed of movement of the herd to or from milking, lameness incidence increased by 5% (CI 0.1–10). Given that the occurrence of lameness was high there is great opportunity to reduce lameness in this population. This study highlights some management and prevention practices that may reduce lameness in these grazing herds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Surplus dairy calves and cull cows are often transported from the dairy farm to a variety of destinations and may experience compromised health and welfare in the process. Increasing interest in farm animal welfare by many stakeholders, including the public and policymakers, has brought about recent changes to livestock transport regulations in Canada that have likely affected transport operations across the country. The Atlantic region may be especially affected as a result of a smaller number of farms, and geography that often requires cattle to be transported long distances. We interviewed 7 livestock haulers in Atlantic Canada regarding their attitudes toward the recent changes to the transport regulations, particularly with regard to how these changes affected their business practices and dairy cattle welfare, as certain regulatory changes pertaining to calf transport were expected to disrupt existing transport practices. Thematic analysis of interview transcripts revealed 2 themes among participants: (1) calf (and sometimes adult cow) welfare and management during transport and on the dairy farm, and (2) feasibility of transport requirements and the enforcement of the regulations, including animosity toward other haulers and the challenge of satisfying both regulatory bodies and farmer clientele. These findings provide insight into the perspectives of an important, and often overlooked, stakeholder in the dairy industry on the transport system and highlight the need for inclusion of diverse voices when creating new policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivation to explore is believed to be widespread among animals, but exploratory behaviour varies within populations. Offering variety in feed is one simple way of allowing intensively housed dairy cattle to express exploratory foraging behaviour. Individuals’ exploration of different feed types, as with other new stimuli, likely reflects a balance between exploratory motivation and fear of novelty. We tested the degree to which Holstein heifers (n = 10) preferred variety in feed vs. a constant, high quality mixed ration, by first providing varying types of forages and then varying flavours of mixed feed. We also investigated individual differences in exploratory behaviour by measuring switching between feed bins. Individual consistency in preferences was assessed between tests, and longer-term consistency was evaluated by comparing these results with behaviour in novel object and novel feed tests before weaning. On average, the heifers preferred the constant, familiar feed (spending on average just 20% of their time at varied feed bins), but this preference varied among individuals (from 0 to 46% of time eating in the forage trial, and 0–93% in the flavour trial). Preference for varied forages correlated positively with intake of novel feed as calves (r s = 0.72, n = 9). Preference for varied flavours showed a negative correlation with latency to approach a novel object (r s = −0.65). It thus appears that preference for variety and exploratory foraging behaviour reflect consistent personality traits. These results suggest that offering novel feeds on a rotating schedule as a supplement to the regular diet may be an effective form of enrichment for at least some individuals within a herd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lameness assessments are commonly conducted at a single point in time, but such assessments are subject to multiple sources of error. We conducted a longitudinal study, assessing the gait of 282 lactating dairy cows weekly during the first 12 wk of lactation, with the aim of assessing how lameness prevalence changed in relation to case definition and assessment frequency. Gait was scored using a 5-point scale where scores of 1 and 2 were considered sound, 3 was clinically lame, and 4 and 5 were severely lame. We created 5 lameness definitions using increasingly stringent thresholds based upon the number of consecutive events of locomotion score ≥3. In LAME1, a cow was considered lame when locomotion score was ≥3 at any scoring event, in LAME2, LAME3, LAME4, and LAME5, a cow was considered lame when locomotion score was 3 or higher during 2, 3, 4, and 5 consecutive scoring events, respectively. We also assessed the effect of assessment frequency on measures of prevalence and incidence using weekly assessment (ASSM1), 1 assessment every 2 wk (ASSM2), 1 assessment every 3 wk (ASSM3), and 1 assessment every 4 wk (ASSM4). Using LAME1, 69.2% of cows were considered lame at some point during the trial, with an average point prevalence of 31.8% (SD: 2.8) and average incidence rate of 10.9 cases/100 cow weeks (SD: 3.7). Lameness prevalence decreased to 28.0% when using LAME5. Survival analysis was used to assess the effects of parity, using these different case definitions. Parity is a known risk for lameness, such that case definitions and prevalence estimates should be stratified by parity to inform management decisions. Using the LAME3 criterion, primiparous cows had the highest chance of reaching 12 wk without a lameness event, and fourth and higher parities had the lowest. Weighted linear and quadratic kappa values were used to assess agreement between different assessment frequencies and lameness definitions; we found substantial to excellent agreement between ASSM1 and ASSM2 using LAME1, LAME2, and LAME3 definitions. Agreement was fair to substantial between ASSM1 and ASSM3 and low to fair between ASSM1 and ASSM4. Likewise, the agreement between LAME1 and LAME2 was fair in primiparous cows, substantial in second and third parity cows, and poor to fair in fourth and greater parity cows. We conclude that lameness prevalence estimates are dependent upon case definition and that the use of more stringent case definitions results in fewer cows classified as lame. These results suggest that routine locomotion assessments be conducted at least every 2 wk, and that cows should be defined as lame on the basis of 2 consecutive assessments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students completing advanced degrees in dairy or animal science may go on to have a major impact on the food animal agriculture industries. The aim of this study was to better understand student views of the future of dairying, including changes in practices affecting animal care on farms as well as perceived public perceptions. We conducted 6 focus group sessions with undergraduate students enrolled in the 2019 US Dairy Education and Training Consortium held in Clovis, New Mexico, and used explorative key word analysis of written notes and thematic analysis of the semi-structured discussions. Some "must-haves" of future animal care on dairy farms included increased use of technology, group housing of calves, and adequate facilities, including enrichment. Students also discussed their views of public expectations regarding animal care on dairy farms, and measures that they felt must be put into place to address these expectations in the coming years. Although the influence of the public was highlighted by the students, they were not always certain what specific values the public holds and doubted the feasibility and practicality of some expectations, such as providing pasture access or keeping the calf and cow together. They further demonstrated uncertainty about how best to align the directions of the industry with public expectations. Although they felt that public education could be used to demonstrate the legitimacy of dairy practices, they also believed that the industry should strive to find compromises and work toward meeting public expectations. Deciding what animal welfare considerations (e.g., naturalness, affective states, or animal health) were most relevant was a challenge for the students, perhaps reflecting diverging messages received during their own education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Standard operating procedures (SOP) are increasingly required on farms participating in animal welfare assurance programs, such as the Dairy Farmers of Canada's proAction initiative and the National Dairy FARM Program in the United States. However, little is known about the use of SOP on farms and who is involved in their development. Literature from other industries shows the importance of including advisors when developing SOP. Despite veterinarians being viewed by many farmers as trusted sources of information, little is known about their involvement in SOP development. The aim of this study was to better understand: (1) what advice from researchers and veterinarians is considered when developing an SOP and (2) what factors affect advice adherence. Participants in this study were farmers (n = 9) from 6 dairy farms in the Fraser Valley region of British Columbia, Canada and their herd veterinarians (n = 5). Structured and semi-structured interviews and participant observation were undertaken from April to December 2018, and the resulting data were analyzed using thematic analysis. In relation to the first aim, we identified 3 main themes: (1) the purpose of the SOP, (2) developing an SOP, and (3) accountability and tracking of procedures. For the second aim, 5 themes emerged: (1) feasibility of the advice, (2) resources required, (3) priority of the advice, (4) other actors involved, and (5) the importance of data. Collectively, these findings suggest that a farm-specific SOP that actively tracks procedures is most beneficial, and that advice adherence is context dependent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Days in milk, low BCS and parity were associated with increases of lameness prevalence. • Severely lame cows produced on average 1.3 kg/day less milk than non-lame cows. • The slipperiness of the alley located adjacent to the feed bunk was associated with higher lameness prevalence. • Cows in sand deep-bedding freestall and compost-bedded barns had lower lameness prevalence. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate factors associated with lameness in dairy cows on intensive farms in southern Brazil. Farms (freestall: n = 38; compost-bedded pack: n = 12) having on average 274 (range: 41–901) lactating cows were visited once in 2016 (March to October). Potential risk factors for lameness at the cow, pen and herd levels were investigated through inspection of facilities, examination of cows and the use of data collected on routine management practices. All milking cows on each farm were assessed for gait score and BCS (n = 13,716). Associations between lameness, days in milk (DIM), BCS, parity, and test-day milk yield were investigated in 16 farms with available data (n = 5,301 cows). Mixed-effects linear and logistic regressions were used to model the data. Within-herd lameness prevalence was 41.1% (range: 13.8–64.5, SD = 11.3). First- and second-lactation cows after 120 DIM and older cows after 335 DIM were more likely to be observed lame than early lactation cows. Greater parity and low BCS (≤ 2.75) were associated with increased odds of lameness. Severely lame cows had lower milk yield (on average 1.3 kg/d) than non-lame cows. Freestall dairies using mattresses as stall base had greater within-pen (95% CI: 52–69%) and herd-level (38–57%) lameness prevalence than compost-bedded farms. Higher lameness prevalence was observed on farms having slippery feed bunk alley floors (32–49%) and shortened dry periods (< 60 days: 32–42%). First-lactation pens had lower predicted within-pen lameness prevalence (0–4%) and special-needs pens higher (52–73%) compared with the prevalence observed in compost-bedded fresh-cow pens (19–41%). Freestall pens using sawdust deep-bedding had greater (46–68%) within-pen lameness prevalence, but the prevalence in barns using sand was not different from compost-bedded farms. Given the high lameness prevalence observed in this study, there is a great opportunity for implementation of lameness prevention programs. Providing walking surfaces with high traction that facilitates mobility and using soft and deep-bedded material, such as compost and sand (and avoiding the use of mattresses) may reduce lameness prevalence in the types of dairy farms visited in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lameness is a major welfare problem in the dairy industry. Environmental factors, such as flooring surface, as well as cow-level factors, such as udder fill, can influence gait. The aim of the current study was to test whether motivation to walk affects gait attributes and whether this effect differs between lame and sound cows. We trained cows to walk down an alley for a food reward and assessed walking speed, stride length, head bob, and back arch of cows previously identified as either lame (n = 7) or sound (n = 10). Cows were assessed when they walked toward a food reward and toward no reward. Cows walked faster and had longer stride length and less variation in head bob when approaching the reward; these effects were similar in both sound and lame cows. We concluded that motivation to walk affects several gait attributes of dairy cows. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperketonemia and metritis are common in the weeks after calving. This study tested if feeding and agonistic behaviors before calving were associated with the development of hyperketonemia (HYK) and metritis after calving. Holstein cows on 5 commercial farms were monitored for HYK (as identified using a cow-side β-hydroxybutyrate test) and metritis (using visual and olfactory assessment of vaginal discharge); both tests were conducted twice a week for 2 wk. Based on this assessment, we selected a balanced sample of cows that remained healthy (no signs of illness; n = 20), cows diagnosed with either HYK (n = 20) or metritis (n = 20), and cows with both HYK and metritis (n = 20). Video recordings from the 8 wk before calving (scored every 2 wk for 90 min immediately after fresh feed delivery) were used to evaluate feeding behavior and competition at the feed bunk. Feeding behavior before calving was associated with postpartum diagnosis of HYK and metritis. Specifically, cows that spent less time eating had higher odds of HYK and metritis. Odds of remaining healthy (compared with becoming sick with at least 1 condition) increased by 1.3 times for every additional 15 min spent eating. Additionally, cows that were involved in fewer agonistic interactions prepartum were more likely to be diagnosed with both conditions during the postpartum period. Odds of remaining healthy (compared with becoming sick with at least one condition) increased by 1.9 times for every 6 additional interactions. We conclude that prepartum feeding and agonistic behaviors can be used to identify animals at risk of HYK and metritis postpartum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about factors affecting individual variability in weaning age, feeding behavior, and growth of dairy calves. The objectives of this study were to (1) describe early-life individual characteristics of dairy calves and how these relate to weaning age, feeding behavior, and performance during the first 15 wk of age, and (2) to identify which of these individual characteristics predict weaning age of calves automatically weaned based on solid feed intake. Early-life characteristics of calves (n = 43) included scores for vitality at birth, drinking ability, learning ability to use the automated milk feeder in a group pen from d 1 of age, and personality traits assessed using exposure to a novel environment, a human, and an object at d 21 of age. Calves received 12 L/d of milk until d 30 when milk was reduced by 25% relative to the individual's previous 3-d intake average. Calves were weaned based on intake of solid feed (milk reduced by 25% at each of 2 intermediate solid feed intake targets, 225 and 675 g/d), and were weaned when they consumed 1,300 g/d of solid feed, resulting in variable weaning ages. A principal component analysis identified 5 factors that we labeled as low vitality, fearful, strong drinker, slow learner, and exploratory-active. Calves that were slow learners weaned at a later age, whereas fearful calves weaned earlier. No other early-life individual characteristics were associated with weaning age. Other characteristics (low vitality, strong drinkers, and exploratory-active) were associated with some measures of feeding behavior, feed intake, and growth, especially during the preweaning period. Measures of early solid feed intake (age to start eating and total preweaning intake) were best able to predict weaning age of calves. Individual early-life characteristics and measures of early solid feed intake can identify calves likely to do well or struggle during weaning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our objective was to evaluate how sampling strategies (i.e., how many cows to sample and which animals to include) used in 4 dairy cattle welfare assessment programs affect the classification of dairy farms relative to thresholds of acceptability for animal-based measures. We predicted that classification performance would improve when more cows were sampled and when selecting from all lactating cows versus when some pens were excluded. On 38 freestall farms, we assessed all 12,375 cows for lameness, injuries on the tarsal (hock) and carpal joints, and body condition score and calculated the farm-level prevalence for each measure. Based on approaches used in the industry, we evaluated 6 sampling strategies generated using formulas with precision (d) of 15, 10, or 5% applied to either a single high-producing pen or all lactating cows; an additional sample was included with d = 10% applied to the entire herd, selecting lactating cows in proportion to their representation in the herd. For each sampling strategy, cow records were selected randomly (in 10,000 replicates) to calculate prevalence. The strategy of assessing all cows in the high-producing pen was also compared. Farms were classified as meeting (below) or failing to meet (above) thresholds of ≤15% moderate lameness; ≤20% moderate carpal or hock injuries; <10, <5, and ≤1% severe lameness; or injuries on the carpus or hock; and <5, <3, <1, or 0% thin cows. For each measure and threshold, we calculated pooled percent agreement, kappa, sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive value for each sampling strategy using true prevalence as the gold standard for herd classification. Across measures and thresholds, classification performance increased with the number of cows sampled [i.e., when narrower precision values (d = 5 vs. 10 vs. 15%) were used in the sample size calculation]. Because narrower precision values can dramatically increase sample size, assessment programs may need to consider both feasibility and the degree of misclassification they will accept. Applying the formula directly to lactating cows performed better than applying it to the entire herd and then selecting lactating cows in proportion to their representation in the herd. Farm classifications were similar whether cows in the hospital pen were included or excluded from the sample. Selecting all cows from the high-producing pen resulted in classifications similar to when including all lactating cows, suggesting that assessing cows from the high-producing pen may serve as an acceptable proxy for all lactating cows on the farm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Separation of calves from cows within hours or days of birth is common on dairy farms. Stakeholders have conflicting perspectives on whether this practice is harmful or beneficial for the animals' welfare and production. Our objective was to critically evaluate the scientific evidence for both acute and long-term effects of early separation versus an extended period of cow–calf contact. The outcomes investigated were the behavior, welfare (excluding physical health), and performance (milk yield and growth, respectively) of dairy cows and calves. Primary research papers were found through targeted Web of Science searches, the reference lists of recent reviews for each topic, and the reference lists of papers identified from these sources. Studies were included if they were published in English, the full text was accessible, and they compared treatments with and without contact between dairy cows and calves for a specified period. Early separation (within 24 h postpartum) was found to reduce acute distress responses of cows and calves. However, longer cow–calf contact typically had positive longer-term effects on calves, promoting more normal social behavior, reducing abnormal behavior, and sometimes reducing responses to stressors. In terms of productivity, allowing cows to nurse calves generally decreased the volume of milk available for sale during the nursing period, but we found no consistent evidence of reduced milk production over a longer period. Allowing a prolonged period of nursing increased calf weight gains during the milk-feeding period. In summary, extended cow–calf contact aggravates the acute distress responses and reduces the amount of saleable milk while the calves are suckling, but it can have positive effects on behaviors relevant to welfare in the longer term and benefit calf growth. The strength of these conclusions is limited, however, given that relatively few studies address most of these effects and that experimental design including timing of contact and observations are often inconsistent across studies. Few studies presented indicators of long-term welfare effects other than abnormal and social behavior of the calves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Performance varies considerably at weaning, perhaps in part because it is associated with the personality traits of the animals. Our objective was to identify calf personality traits using standardized tests and determine whether these were associated with measures of feeding behavior and performance. Fifty-six dairy calves were housed in 7 groups of 8 calves each with access to an automated milk feeder and ad libitum access to water, starter, and hay. We measured starter DMI and the number of unrewarded visits to the automated milk feeder during each of 4 periods: prestep (full milk allowance; 7–41 d of age), step (milk allowance reduced to 50%; 42–50 d of age), weaning (51–54 d of age), and postweaning (55–68 d of age). At 27 and 76 d of age, each calf was subjected to 3 novelty tests: novel environment (30 min), human approach (10 min with an unknown stationary human), and novel object (15 min with a black 140-L bucket). During each of the tests, 7 behaviors were scored: latency to touch and duration of touching the human or object, duration of attentive behavior toward the human or object, number of vocalizations, number of quadrants crossed as a measure of activity, and duration of inactivity, exploration, and playing. Data were averaged across ages and then across tests. Principal component analysis revealed 3 factors (interactive, exploratory–active, and vocal–inactive) that together explained 73% of the variance. Calves that were more exploratory–active began to consume starter at an earlier age and showed greater starter dry matter intake during all experimental periods and greater overall average daily gain. Calves that were more interactive and vocal–inactive had more unrewarded visits to the milk feeder during initial milk reduction. We conclude that personality traits are associated with feeding behavior and performance around weaning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dairy cows display a partial preference for being outside, but little is known about what aspects of the outdoor environment are important to cows. The primary aim of this study was to test the preference of lactating dairy cattle for pasture versus an outdoor sand pack during the night. A secondary aim was to determine whether feeding and perching behavior changed when cows were provided outdoor access. A third objective was to investigate how the lying behavior of cows changed when given access to different outdoor areas. Ninety-six lactating pregnant cows were assigned to 8 groups of 12 animals each. After a baseline phase of 2 d in which cows were kept inside the freestall barn, cows were habituated to the outdoor areas by providing them access to each of the 2 options for 24 h. Cows were then given access, in random order by group, to either the pasture (pasture phase) or the sand pack (sand phase). As we tested the 2 outdoor options using space allowances consistent with what would be practical on commercial dairy farms, the space provided on pasture was larger (21,000 m2) than that provided on the sand pack (144 m2). Cows were tested at night (for 2 nights in each condition), from 2000 h until morning milking at approximately 0800 h, as preference to be outdoors is strongest at this time. During the next 3 nights cows were given access to both outside options simultaneously (choice phase). Feeding and perching behaviors were recorded when cows were indoors during the day and night periods. Lying behavior was automatically recorded by HOBO data loggers (Onset, Bourne, MA). Cows spent more time outside in the pasture phase (90.0 ± 5.9%) compared with the sand phase (44.4 ± 6.3%). When provided simultaneous access to both options, cows spent more time on pasture than on the sand pack (90.5 ± 2.6% vs. 0.8 ± 0.5%, respectively). Time spent feeding indoors during the day did not change regardless of what type of outdoor access was provided, but there was a decline in perching during the day when cows were provided access to either outdoor option at night. Lying time in the pasture phase was lower than in the baseline or sand phase. During the nighttime, lying time outside was not different between the sand (55.4 ± 7.9%) and pasture (52.0 ± 7.4%) phases. In summary, cows spent a considerable amount of time outside during the night when given the opportunity and showed a preference for a large pasture versus a small sand pack as an outdoor area [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to describe the incidence risk of dystocia, retained placenta (RP), pathological recumbence (down cow), the prevalence of metritis and subclinical ketosis (SCK), and the risk factors for SCK, metritis, and RP in grazing dairy herds in Southern Brazil. Fifty-three herds were visited 2–6 times from February to October of 2015. Body condition score (BCS), breed, days in milk (DIM), parity and disease status were recorded for each cow that was between 3 and 21 DIM at the time of the visits. Management practices were determined using a survey and environmental inspection was performed on each visit. SCK was identified if blood β-hydroxybutyrate was ≥1.2 mmol/L and metritis by inspection of the vaginal discharge; cows were assessed once between 3 and 21 DIM. Multilevel logistic regression models, controlling for farm as a random effect, were built to identify risk factors for each disease and to assess the proportion of variance at the herd and cow levels. Models were constructed based on causal diagrams and variable screening. Overall, prevalence of SCK and metritis and incidence risk of RP were 21, 11 and 14%, respectively. Reported incidence risk of down cow was 6% and displaced abomasum was 1%. The odds (OR; 95% CI) of a cow having SCK were higher in herds with high (>10%) incidence of down cows (2.7; 1.4–5.0), limited access to water (1.9; 1.1–3.1), Jersey cows (OR: 2.2; 1.2–4.1) and in cows that were in third or greater lactation (2.9; 1.4–5.5). BCS 3.0–3.5 decreased the odds (0.4; 0.2–0.8) of metritis, while DIM, RP and being in a herd with a dirty holding area increased the odds of metritis by 1.1 (1.1–1.2), 19.5 (9.9–38.3) and 2.1 (1.0–4.2) fold, respectively. Parity >2 and dystocia increased the odds of RP by 2.4 (1.2–4.6) and 3.0 (1.6–5.4) fold, respectively. Jersey breed, use of a maternity pen and keeping the newborn calf with the cow >12 h decreased the odds of having RP by 0.1 (0.0–0.4), 0.5 (0.3–1.0) and 0.4 (0.2–0.8) times, respectively. The variation in disease occurrence was largely dependent on cow-level factors. However, herd level risk factors also influenced disease occurrence and should be considered in order to design better preventive transition period diseases protocols. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Behaviour is an important tool for recognizing illness in animals. One of the most common diseases in dairy cattle is clinical mastitis. Evidence suggests that cows with this disease show sickness behaviours, but little is known about the progression of behavioural changes before and after the disease becomes clinical. The aims of this study were to determine changes in feeding and competitive behaviour at the feed bunk of dairy cows before the diagnosis of clinical mastitis and determine the effect of intramammary antibiotic treatment on behaviour. Dry matter intake, feeding time, number of visits to the feeder, rate of feed intake, number of replacements occurring at the feeder (when one cow displaced a feeding cow and took her position at the feed bin) and the percent of intake during peak feeding time were measured daily in eight cows diagnosed with clinical mastitis in one quarter of the udder. Clinical mastitis was diagnosed based on daily rectal body temperature as well as condition of the foremilk and udder assessed by the milker at each milking from calving until 30 days in milk. Starting on the day of diagnosis, cows received an intramammary antibiotic twice daily for three consecutive days. During the 5 days period before diagnosis, cows decreased feed intake by 1.2 kg/d (SE = 0.2, P < 0.001) but showed no other changes in feeding behaviour during this time. The frequency of competitive replacements at the feeder (slope = −2.3 no./d, SE = 1.0, P = 0.04) and the percentage of intake at peak feeding time (slope = −1.8%, SE = 0.6, P = 0.008) were lower compared to day of diagnosis. Following treatment, cows immediately increased feed intake, feeding time and competitive replacements at the feeder. These results show that cows with naturally occurring clinical mastitis exhibit signs of sickness behaviour in the days before diagnosis, and that these behaviours rapidly recover in the days after treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]