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Replacement of the azetidine carboxylate of an S1P1 agonist development candidate, AMG 369, with a range of acyclic head-groups led to the identification of a novel, S1P3-sparing S1P1 agonist, (−)-2-amino-4-(3-fluoro-4-(5-(1-phenylcyclopropyl)thiazolo[5,4-b]pyridin-2-yl)phenyl)-2-methylbutanoic acid (8c), which possessed good in vivo efficacy and pharmacokinetic properties. A 0.3 mg/kg oral dose of 8c produced a statistically significant reduction in blood lymphocyte counts 24 h post-dosing in female Lewis rats.

Rats with collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) were necropsied on 14 occasions from 4 days after induction to 27 days after disease onset to evaluate the kinetics of local (joint protein extracts) and systemic (serum) levels of inflammatory and pro-erosive factors. Systemic increases in alpha1 acid glycoprotein and KC/GRO together with systemic and local enrichment of interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, CCL2, transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta and elevated IL-1alpha and IL-18 in joint extracts preceded the onset of clinical disease. Systemic upregulation of IL-1beta, IL-6, TGF-beta CCL2, RANKL and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) during acute and/or chronic CIA coincided with systemic leukocytosis and a CD4+ T-cell increase in blood and spleen. In contrast, progression of joint erosions during clinical CIA was associated with intra-articular increases in IL-1alpha/beta, IL-6, IL-18, CCL2, KC/GRO and RANKL, and a dramatic decline in osteoprotegerin (OPG). These data indicate that systemic and local events in inflammatory arthritis can be discrete processes, driven by multiple cellular and humoral mediators with distinct temporospatial profiles.

Hyperresponsiveness of airway smooth muscle to allergens and environmental factors has long been associated with the pathophysiology of asthma. Tryptase, a serine protease of lung mast cells, has been implicated as one of the mediators involved in the induction of hyperresponsiveness. As a consequence, tryptase inhibitors have become the subject of study as potential novel therapeutic agents for asthma. Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) is a naturally occurring protein of human airways which exhibits anti-tryptase activity. To assess the potential therapeutic utility of SLPI in asthma, its effects were evaluated using in vitro and ex vivo models of airway hyperresponsiveness and compared with the effects of the small molecule tryptase inhibitor APC-366. Our results demonstrate that SLPI inhibits tryptase-mediated hyperresponsiveness in vitro and attenuates the hyperresponsiveness observed in airway smooth muscle from antigen-sensitized animals subjected to antigen exposure. The small molecule tryptase inhibitor APC-366 has a similar inhibitory effect. Thus, tryptase appears to be a significant contributor to the development of hyperresponsiveness in these models. To the extent that tryptase contributes to the development and progression of asthma, SLPI may posses therapeutic potential in this disease setting.

An SAR campaign designed to increase polarity in the 'tail' region of benzothiazole 1 resulted in two series of structurally novel 5-and 6-substituted S1P(1) agonists. Structural optimization for potency ultimately delivered carboxamide (+)-11f, which in addition to possessing improved physicochemical properties relative to starting benzothiazole 1, also displayed good S1P(3) selectivity and acceptable in vivo lymphocyte-depleting activity.

Rodent models of immune-mediated arthritis (RMIA) are the conventional approach to evaluating mechanisms of inflammatory joint disease and the comparative efficacy of antiarthritic agents. Rat adjuvant-induced (AIA), collagen-induced (CIA), and streptococcal cell wall-induced (SCW) arthritides are preferred models of the joint pathology that occurs in human rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Lesions of AIA are most severe and consistent; structural and immunological changes of CIA best resemble RA. Lesion extent and severity in RMIA depends on experimental methodology (inciting agent, adjuvant, etc.) and individual physiologic parameters (age, genetics, hormonal status, etc.). The effectiveness of antiarthritic molecules varies with the agent, therapeutic regimen, and choice of RMIA. All RMIA are driven by overactivity of proinflammatory pathways, but the dominant molecules differ among the models. Hence, as with the human clinical experience, the efficacy of various antiarthritic molecules differs among RMIA, especially when the agent is a specific cytokine inhibitor.

Rat adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) and collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) feature bone loss and systemic increases in TNFalpha, IL-1beta, and receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL). Anti-IL-1 or anti-TNFalpha therapies consistently reduce inflammation in these models, but systemic bone loss often persists. RANKL inhibition consistently prevents bone loss in both models without reducing joint inflammation. Effects of these therapies on systemic markers of bone turnover and inflammation have not been directly compared.Lewis rats with established AIA or CIA were treated for 10 days (from day 4 post onset) with either PBS (Veh), TNFalpha inhibitor (pegsunercept), IL-1 inhibitor (anakinra), or RANKL inhibitor (osteoprotegerin (OPG)-Fc). Local inflammation was evaluated by monitoring hind paw swelling. Bone mineral density (BMD) of paws and lumbar vertebrae was assessed by dual X-ray absorptiometry. Markers and mediators of bone resorption (RANKL, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase 5b (TRACP 5B)) and inflammation (prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), acute-phase protein alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (alpha1AGP), multiple cytokines) were measured in serum (day 14 post onset).Arthritis progression significantly increased paw swelling and ankle and vertebral BMD loss. Anti-TNFalpha reduced paw swelling in both models, and reduced ankle BMD loss in AIA rats. Anti-IL-1 decreased paw swelling in CIA rats, and reduced ankle BMD loss in both models. Anti-TNFalpha and anti-IL-1 failed to prevent vertebral BMD loss in either model. OPG-Fc reduced BMD loss in ankles and vertebrae in both models, but had no effect on paw swelling. Serum RANKL was elevated in AIA-Veh and CIA-Veh rats. While antiTNFalpha and anti-IL-1 partially normalized serum RANKL without any changes in serum TRACP 5B, OPG-Fc treatment reduced serum TRACP 5B by over 90% in both CIA and AIA rats. CIA-Veh and AIA-Veh rats had increased serum alpha1AGP, IL-1beta, IL-8 and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), and AIA-Veh rats also had significantly greater serum PGE2, TNFalpha and IL-17. Anti-TNFalpha reduced systemic alpha1AGP, CCL2 and PGE2 in AIA rats, while anti-IL-1 decreased systemic alpha1AGP, IL-8 and PGE2. In contrast, RANKL inhibition by OPG-Fc did not lessen systemic cytokine levels in either model.Anti-TNFalpha or anti-IL-1 therapy inhibited parameters of local and systemic inflammation, and partially reduced local but not systemic bone loss in AIA and CIA rats. RANKL inhibition prevented local and systemic bone loss without significantly inhibiting local or systemic inflammatory parameters.

Investigations into the structure-activity relationships (SAR) of a series of phthalazine-based inhibitors of p38 are described. These efforts originated from quinazoline 1 and through rational design led to the development of a series of orally bioavailable, potent, and selective inhibitors. Kinase selectivity was achieved by exploiting a collection of interactions with p38alpha including close contact to Ala157, occupation of the hydrophobic gatekeeper pocket, and a residue flip with Gly110. Substitutions on the phthalazine influenced the pharmacokinetic properties, of which compound 16 displayed the most desirable profile. Oral dosing (0.03 mg/kg) of 16 in rats 1 h prior to LPS challenge gave a >50% decrease in TNFalpha production.

Lck, or lymphocyte specific kinase, is a cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase of the Src family expressed in T-cells and NK cells. Genetic evidence from knockout mice and human mutations demonstrates that Lck kinase activity is critical for T-cell receptor-mediated signaling, leading to normal T-cell development and activation. A small molecule inhibitor of Lck is expected to be useful in the treatment of T-cell-mediated autoimmune and inflammatory disorders and/or organ transplant rejection. In this paper, we describe the structure-guided design, synthesis, structure-activity relationships, and pharmacological characterization of 2-amino-6-phenylpyrimido[5',4':5,6]pyrimido[1,2- a]benzimidazol-5(6 H)-ones, a new class of compounds that are potent inhibitors of Lck. The most promising compound of this series, 6-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)-2-((4-(4-methyl-1-piperazinyl)phenyl)amino)pyrimido[5',4':5,6]pyrimido-[1,2- a]benzimidazol-5(6 H)-one ( 25), exhibits potent inhibition of Lck kinase activity. This activity translates into inhibition of in vitro cell-based assays and in vivo models of T-cell activation and arthritis, respectively.

Rats with adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) were necropsied on 14 occasions during preclinical, acute clinical and chronic clinical stages of AIA progression to characterize local (joint protein extracts) and systemic (serum) levels of mediators regulating inflammation and bone erosion in conjunction with lymphoid tissue-specific leukocyte kinetics.Systemic increases in alpha1 acid glycoprotein, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha), interleukin (IL)-17, transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta), and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2) together with local IL-1alpha/beta and TGFbeta enrichment and local lymphoid hyperplasia preceded the onset of clinical disease and joint damage. Systemic upregulation of TNFalpha, IL-6, IL-17, TGFbeta, IL-18, CCL2, receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappabeta ligand (RANKL), and prostaglandin E(2) during acute and/or chronic AIA coincided with systemic leukocytosis and CD4+ T cell increase in blood and spleen. In contrast, progression of joint erosions during clinical AIA was associated with intra-articular increases in IL-1alpha/beta, IL-6, RANKL, IL-17, TGFbeta, CCL2, and KC/GRO and also a dramatic decline in osteoprotegerin.These data indicate that systemic and local events in inflammatory arthritis are discrete processes, driven by multiple cellular and humoral mediators with distinct kinetic profiles.

The lymphocyte-specific kinase (Lck) is a cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase of the Src family expressed in T cells and NK cells. Genetic evidence in both mice and humans demonstrates that Lck kinase activity is critical for signaling mediated by the T cell receptor (TCR), which leads to normal T cell development and activation. A small molecule inhibitor of Lck is expected to be useful in the treatment of T cell-mediated autoimmune and inflammatory disorders and/or organ transplant rejection. In this paper, we describe the synthesis, structure-activity relationships, and pharmacological characterization of 2-aminopyrimidine carbamates, a new class of compounds with potent and selective inhibition of Lck. The most promising compound of this series, 2,6-dimethylphenyl 2-((3,5-bis(methyloxy)-4-((3-(4-methyl-1-piperazinyl)propyl)oxy)phenyl)amino)-4-pyrimidinyl(2,4-bis(methyloxy)phenyl)carbamate (43) exhibits good activity when evaluated in in vitro assays and in an in vivo model of T cell activation.

Objective To analyze the kinetics of osteoclastogenesis in 2 models of chronic immune-mediated arthritis and 1 model of acute arthritis. Methods Adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) and collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) in Lewis rats were used as models of chronic arthritis. Acute arthritis was induced in Lewis rats by injecting carrageenan into the hind paw. Osteoclasts were identified by cathepsin K immunohistochemistry at various time points after the onset of arthritis. The location, size, and nucleation of osteoclasts were also analyzed. Results In both AIA and CIA, multinucleated and cathepsin K–positive osteoclasts first were observed on the day of disease onset. Initially, osteoclasts were localized at the periosteum next to the synovial membrane and in subchondral bone channels. The number, size, and nucleation of osteoclasts rapidly increased, leading to severe bone loss within days after disease onset. In addition, numerous mononucleated cathepsin K–positive osteoclast precursor cells emerged in the synovial membrane. All osteoclasts (cathepsin K–positive, multinucleated, attached to bone) and osteoclast precursors (cathepsin K–positive, mononucleated or multinucleated, within synovial tissue) were also positive for a macrophage-specific marker. Upon induction of acute arthritis with carrageenan, osteoclasts formed transiently in subchondral bone, but regressed 7 days after disease onset. Conclusion Functional osteoclasts are generated at the earliest stage of arthritis, and new precursors are continuously formed in the synovial membrane to replenish the osteoclast pool. These data indicate that antiresorptive therapies may provide the most effective bone protection, when treatment is started soon after the onset of arthritis.

Objective To investigate whether the bone-preserving effects of a RANKL antagonist or a tumor necrosis factor (TNF) antagonist could be further improved by the addition of a bone anabolic agent in inflammatory arthritis. Methods Lewis rats with either adjuvant-induced arthritis (AIA) or collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) were treated for 10 days with PEGylated soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor type I (PEG sTNFRI), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra), osteoprotegerin (OPG), parathyroid hormone (PTH), or combinations of these agents starting on day 4 after disease onset. Treatment effects were assessed clinically, radiologically, and histologically, and by morphometry for the extent of paw swelling, bone erosive changes, and synovial inflammation. Results Paw swelling and synovial inflammation were significantly inhibited by PEG sTNFRI in AIA and CIA, and by IL-1Ra in CIA. OPG and PTH had no significant effect on these parameters. Analysis of bone erosion revealed a significant bone-sparing effect of monotherapy with PEG sTNFRI or OPG in both models, whereas IL-1Ra was only effective in CIA. PTH treatment alone did not show a bone-protective effect in either model. With the combination of PEG sTNFRI and PTH, erosion scores (−74% in AIA and −61% in CIA versus controls) were significantly lower than those elicited by PEG sTNFRI alone (−41% and −29%, respectively, versus controls). Similar results were also obtained with the combination of OPG and PTH (−88% in AIA and −73% in CIA, compared with −70% and −55%, respectively, with OPG monotherapy). Coadministration of IL-1Ra and PTH had no synergistic bone-sparing effect. Morphometric analysis revealed that the addition of PTH to PEG sTNFRI or OPG resulted in higher bone volume and higher osteoblast numbers in both AIA and CIA. Conclusion The bone-protective effects resulting from RANKL or TNF antagonism can be further improved by the addition of a bone anabolic agent.

RANKL is an essential mediator of bone erosions, but the role of RANKL in systemic bone loss had not been studied in arthritis. RANKL protein was increased in rat joint extracts and serum at the earliest stages of arthritis. Osteoprotegerin (OPG) treatment reversed local and systemic bone loss, suggesting that RANKL is both a marker and mediator of bone loss in arthritis. Introduction: RANKL is well established as an essential mediator of bone erosions in inflammatory arthritis, but the role of RANKL in systemic bone loss in arthritis had not been studied. We hypothesized that serum RANKL could serve as both a mediator and as a novel biomarker for local and systemic bone loss in arthritis. We challenged this hypothesis in two established rat models of inflammatory arthritis. We sought to determine whether serum RANKL was elevated early in disease progression and whether RANKL suppression could prevent both local and systemic bone loss in these models. Materials and Methods: Detailed time-course studies were conducted in animals with collagen-induced (CIA) or adjuvant-induced (AIA) arthritis to evaluate the onset and progression of inflammation (paw swelling), bone erosions, osteoclast numbers, and RANKL protein levels in arthritic joints and in serum. Additional CIA and AIA rats (n = 8/group) received placebo (PBS) or recombinant OPG (3 mg/kg three times weekly) for 10 days beginning 4 days after disease onset (first macroscopic evidence of hind paw erythema and edema) to assess the role of RANKL in local and systemic bone loss. Results: RANKL protein was significantly elevated in the joints and serum of CIA and AIA rats within 1–2 days of disease onset. Increased RANKL levels were associated with local (hind paw) and systemic (vertebral) osteopenia in both models. The RANKL inhibitor OPG prevented local and systemic osteopenia in both models of established disease. Conclusions: RANKL protein is significantly increased both locally and systemically during the earliest stages of inflammatory arthritis in rats, suggesting that serum RANKL might have prognostic value for bone erosions and systemic osteopenia in this condition. RANKL inhibition through OPG prevented local and systemic bone loss in these arthritis models, suggesting that RANKL inhibition is a promising new approach for treating bone loss in arthritis.