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The defective major histocompatibility complex (MHC) DRB6 gene is transcribed into mRNA in human [peripheral blood lymphocytes, transfected and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)] and chimpanzee EBV cell lines. MHC-DRB6 presents several anomalies, which include stop codons in exon 2, lack of the usual polyadenilation signal of other MHC-DRB genes, and a promoter region and exon 1 taken from a locally inserted retrovirus. The complete cDNA sequences from human DRB6*0201 and three common chimpanzee alleles (Patr-DRB6*0108, Patr-DRB6*0109, Patr-DRB6*0111) have been obtained; two exon 1-exon 2 cDNA sequences from bonobos (Papa-DRB6*0101 and Papa-DRB6*0102) are also shown. In contrast to chimpanzee DRB6 transcripts, the human ones: (1) present an exon 1-exon 2 splicing site that includes the transcription of the first 141 nucleotides of intron 1, rendering a longer exon 1, and (2) show a duplication of exon 6, which would render a longer cytoplasmic tail in a putative DRB6 protein. These two characteristics are found in all the human sequences obtained, regardless of the cellular type tested, and they are not present in any of the chimpanzee alleles reported; consequently, they are human-specific. All the alleles reported here bear stop codons in the three possible reading frames; however, a certain level of expression of DRB6 has been observed by cytofluorometry. This could be due to the presence of a selenocysteine insertion sequence (SECIS) stem-loop structure located at the 3 untranslated region of the DRB6 mRNA, which directs selenocysteine incorporation at UGA codons. DRB6 transcription and translation would be the first gene model of a readingthrough stop codon mechanism in primate MHC. It is also feasible that the DRB6 gene might generate a population of short polypeptides, bound to plasmatic membranes, having non-antigen-presenting functions or which are presented by other MHC molecules as HLA-E presents HLA-G and -B leader sequence-derived peptides.

HLA-DRB6 is one of the human major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes present in DR1, DR2, and DR10 haplotypes (approximately 26% of individuals). It shows several anomalies in human and non-human primates, including exon 2 stop codons (non-randomly grouped between codons 74 and 94) and a promoter region, and an exon 1 coming from an inserted retrovirus. It has been shown that not only chimpanzee but also human Mhc-DRB6 lack the usual 3' untranslated (UT) polyadenylation signal, and in the present work it was found that the human DRB6 gene coming from an HLA-DR2 haplotype is effectively transcribed after transfection in mouse L cells, and that HLA-DRB6 molecules may be expressed on the cell surface. DRB6 transcription level is remarkably lower in human than in chimpanzee. Moreover, their exons 1 (both taken from the 3'LTR region of a mammary tumor retrovirus) are also different; this shows that these viral insertions may be an important mechanism for different evolutionary changes in orthologous genes of different species. The pathways by which DRB6 molecules may be expressed on the membrane are unclear but other examples of truncated protein expression have also been described, even within the human major histocompatibility complex (i. e., in HLA-G). Finally, the presence of mature HLA-DRB6 mRNA molecules supports the notion that splicing may take place even in the absence of a canonical 3'UT polyadenylation signal.

Twenty-seven major histocompatibility complex (Mhc)-G exon 2, exon 3, and exon 2 and 3 allelic sequences were obtained together with 12 different intron 2 sequences. Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus, Gorilla gorilla, Pongo pygmaeus, Macaca fascicularis, Macaca mulatta, and Cercopithecus aethiops individuals were studied. Polymorphism does not follow the classical pattern of three hypervariable regions per domain and is found in all species studied; exon 3 (equivalent to the alpha 2 protein domain) shows stop codons in the Cercopithecinae group but not in the Pongidae and human groups. Dendrograms show that cotton top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus) Mhc-G sequences are closer to Homo sapiens and Pongidae than to Cercopithecinae, probably due to the stop codons existing at exon 3 of the latter. There is a clear trans-species evolution of allelism in Cercopithecinae and also in exon 2 of all the other apes studied, but a generation of allelism within each species may be present on exon 3 sequences. This discrepancy may be due to the preferential use of exon 2 over exon 3 at the mRNA splicing level within each species in order to obtain the appropriate functional G product. Mhc-G intron 2 shows conserved motifs in all species studied, particularly a 23 base pair deletion between positions 161 and 183 which is locus specific, and some of the invariant residues, important for peptide presentation, conserved in classical class I molecules from fish and reptiles to humans were not found in Mhc-G alleles; the intron 2 dendrogram also shows a particular pattern of allelism within each species. In summary, Mhc-G has substantial differences from other classical class I genes: polymorphism patterns, tissue distribution, gene structure, splicing variability, and probably an allelism variability within each species at exon 3. The G proteins may also be different. This indicates that the Mhc-G function may not be peptide presentation to the clonotypic T-cell receptor.

DRB6 has been found to be transcribed in human and apes. Promoter region and exon 1 come from a 5' LTR from a mammary tumour retrovirus. However, the putative protein structure would be very different to other DR molecules and it is doubtful that it may function as an antigen presenting molecule. Primate DRB6 alleles previously published together with the two new macaque sequences reported here support the existence of a strong selective pressure working on exon 2 to generate stop codons at the end of the exon (between codons 74 and 94) during at least 23 million years. The topology of dendrograms constructed with different primate DRB6 alleles supports the "trans-species" evolution proposed for MHC class I, class II and possibly C4 genes. Finally, DRB6, which is one of the oldest DRB genes, has been lost in the HLA-DRB3 (or DR52) group of haplotypes (DR3, DR5, DR6 and DR8) and a small DRB6 sequence is present at the exon 2 first hypervariable region of DRB4 (or DR53) gene, which is present in DR4, DR7 and DR9 haplotypes.

Immunohistochemical (IHC) HER-2/neu protein overexpression was found in 17.6% of canine mammary gland carcinomas, a percentage similar to that observed in human breast carcinoma, but there was no gene amplification by chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH). Canine mammary carcinoma would be a suitable natural model of that subset of human breast carcinomas with HER-2 protein overexpression without gene amplification.

Mhc-E intron 1, exon 2, intron 2, and exon 3 from pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus), chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) and orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) have been sequenced; six new Mhc-E alleles have been obtained but sequence changes are only placed either in introns or in synonymous exonic bases. One pygmy chimpanzee Mhc-E DNA sequence is identical to another sequence from chimpanzee; the fact that no variation is found also at the intronic level suggests that these two species of chimpanzee may have recently separated and/or that both of them might only represent subspecies. Mhc-E phylogenetic trees separate two evolutionary groups: Pongidae, including humans, and Cercopithecinae; this is also found by studying another non-classical class I gene, Mhc-G. The Mhc-E alleles' invariance at the protein level supports that strong selective forces are operating at the Mhc-E locus, as has also been found in both Cercopithecinae and humans. These allelic and evolutionary data suggest an altogether different functionality for HLA-E (and also HLA-G) compared with classical class I proteins: i.e., sending negative (tolerogenic) signals to NK and T cells.