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Verticillium wilt, caused by the fungal pathogen Verticillium dahliae , is the most severe disease that threatens artichoke ( Cynara scolymus L.) plants. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) may represent a useful biological control strategy against this pathogen attack, replacing chemical compounds that, up to now, have been not very effective. In this study, we evaluated the effect of the AMF Glomus viscosum Nicolson in enhancing the plant tolerance towards the pathogen V. dahliae . The role of the ascorbate-glutathione (ASC-GSH) cycle and other antioxidant systems involved in the complex network of the pathogen-fungi-plant interaction have been investigated. The results obtained showed that the AMF G. viscosum is able to enhance the defense antioxidant systems in artichoke plants affected by V. dahliae , alleviating the oxidative stress symptoms. AMF-inoculated plants exhibited significant increases in ascorbate peroxidase (APX), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, a higher content of ascorbate (ASC) and glutathione (GSH), and a decrease in the levels of lipid peroxidation and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ). Hence, G. viscosum may represent an effective strategy for mitigating V. dahliae pathogenicity in artichokes, enhancing the plant defense systems, and improving the nutritional values and benefit to human health.

Plant antioxidants are important compounds involved in plant defense, signaling, growth, and development. The quantity and quality of such compounds is genetically driven; nonetheless, light is one of the factors that strongly influence their synthesis and accumulation in plant tissues. Indeed, light quality affects the fitness of the plant, modulating its antioxidative profile, a key element to counteract the biotic and abiotic stresses. With this regard, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are emerging as a powerful technology which allows the selection of specific wavelengths and intensities, and therefore the targeted accumulation of plant antioxidant compounds. Despite the unique advantages of such technology, LED application in the horticultural field is still at its early days and several aspects still need to be investigated. This review focused on the most recent outcomes of LED application to modulate the antioxidant compounds of plants, with particular regard to vitamin C, phenols, chlorophyll, carotenoids, and glucosinolates. Additionally, future challenges and opportunities in the use of LED technology in the growth and postharvest storage of fruits and vegetables were also addressed to give a comprehensive overview of the future applications and trends of research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]