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MSc (Zoology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Amphibians were the first vertebrate group to appear on land about 350 m.y.a and have diversified and colonized all suitable continents and islands. Amphibians are hosts to vast numbers and an astonishing diversity of parasites, representing all parasitic groups. These include protozoans, nematodes, acanthocephalans, monogeneans, digeneans, cestodes, leeches and mites. This impressive parasite diversity can be explained by the fact that amphibians are closely associated with water, which facilitates parasite transmission and they play the middle role in food chains - being both predators and prey. Amphibian parasitic fauna is generally poorly understood and understudied; this is especially true in southern Africa, where over 170 amphibian species have been identified. This study will show that we discovered a vast diversity of parasites in 22 different anuran species, from the previously unstudied area. A large number of parasites were found using morphological, molecular and statistical approaches and several of them appear to be distinct from all known species and are, most likely, new to science. During this project 269 specimens of frogs representing 22 species were collected, dissected and studied for parasites. This research revealed 35 species of metazoan parasites, including 24 nematode species, two cestode species, three trematodes, three monogeneans, one acanthocephalan, one mite and one annelid species. The most infected amphibian species were the common river frog, Amietia delalandii and the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis which harboured six and five helminth species, respectively. Nematodes were the most common parasites, accounting for 69% of the faunal community (24 of 35 species). We discovered numerous species that are morphologically and genetically different in a rather small research region and within only 22 species of anurans. Understanding and researching host-parasite interactions in nature will help to close the knowledge gaps in disease and community ecology. Parasites are everywhere, diverse, and inventive and we believe that incorporating them into basic biological research will be a significant stride forward for decades to come. Masters

The subgenus Laurentomantis in the genus Gephyromantis contains some of the least known amphibian species of Madagascar. The six currently valid nominal species are rainforest frogs known from few individuals, hampering a full understanding of the species diversity of the clade. We assembled data on specimens collected during field surveys over the past 30 years and integrated analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear-encoded genes of 88 individuals, a comprehensive bioacoustic analysis, and morphological comparisons to delimit a minimum of nine species-level lineages in the subgenus. To clarify the identity of the species Gephyromantis malagasius, we applied a target-enrichment approach to a sample of the 110 year-old holotype of Microphryne malagasia Methuen and Hewitt, 1913 to assign this specimen to a lineage based on a mitochondrial DNA barcode. The holotype clustered unambiguously with specimens previously named G. ventrimaculatus. Consequently we propose to consider Trachymantis malagasia ventrimaculatus Angel, 1935 as a junior synonym of Gephyromantis malagasius. Due to this redefinition of G. malagasius, no scientific name is available for any of the four deep lineages of frogs previously subsumed under this name, all characterized by red color ventrally on the hindlimbs. These are here formally named as Gephyromantis fiharimpesp. nov., G. matsilosp. nov., G. oelkrugisp. nov., and G. portonaesp. nov. The new species are distinguishable from each other by genetic divergences of >4% uncorrected pairwise distance in a fragment of the 16S rRNA marker and a combination of morphological and bioacoustic characters. Gephyromantis fiharimpe and G. matsilo occur, respectively, at mid-elevations and lower elevations along a wide stretch of Madagascar’s eastern rainforest band, while G. oelkrugi and G. portonae appear to be more range-restricted in parts of Madagascar’s North East and Northern Central East regions. Open taxonomic questions surround G. horridus, to which we here assign specimens from Montagne d’Ambre and the type locality Nosy Be; and G. ranjomavo, which contains genetically divergent populations from Marojejy, Tsaratanana, and Ampotsidy.

MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus Recent studies revealed that parasites outweigh their host species in terms of species richness. This suggests parasitism as the most common lifestyle. In present times, parasites have an even higher species richness and abundance mainly due to host species dispersal, invasion and human activities. Of these, members of the family Cosmocercidae are found globally, most commonly parasitising Anura. These nematodes were found to be one of the most abundant groups of parasites with a wide host range which includes freshwater fish, amphibians, reptiles, with some recorded in birds and mammals. Species of Cosmocercidae are distinguished mainly by the differences in male genital morphology. Numerous inaccurate descriptions, redescriptions and the synonymisation of found species, followed by the lack of male found specimens and molecular data, caused taxonomic uncertainties in this group. Despite the numerous studies and the development of advanced methods and techniques, fauna of cosmocercid nematodes in South Africa is still represented by four species of Aplectana, Railiet and Henry, 1916 and one species of Cosmocerca Diesing, 1861. As a result, the most common species found in many amphibians (and reptiles) throughout South Africa is Cosmocerca ornata (Dujardin, 1845), initially described from the European green (=edible) frog and European common frog in France. This seems unlikely due to the geographical distance and difference in host species. In the present study helminthological material was collected from 193 frog specimens and the nematodes were studied under light microscopes. The morphological and morphometrical data illustrate significant differences between found specimens in comparison to the known species. Morphological differences are also supported by the molecular data of partial 18S and ITS-28S nuclear genes. Species were morphologically different in the number and/or arrangement of papillae from the known species with some resembling Aplectana capensis Baker, 1981 and A. macintoshii Stewart, 1914. These characteristics are used as a common distinguishing feature in species differentiation of cosmocercin nematodes. The number of host species was significantly extended from the known records. Thus, we believe that cosmocercin fauna of South African amphibians are more diverse than previously documented. Masters

Nematodes of the genus Amphibiophilus Skrjabin, 1916 are a small group of parasites restricted to pyxicephalid frogs in southern Africa. In the present study, the new species A. bialatus parasitising the clicking stream frog Strongylopus grayii (Smith) as well as two forms parasitising the common river frog Amietia delalandii (Dumeril & Bibron) from two distant localities are described. Amphibiophilus bialatus n. sp. clearly differs from the remaining species of the genus by having wide cervical alae, the dorsal oesophageal tooth not reaching the oral opening, and the presence of extra processes on the spicules. Specimens parasitising Am. delalandii in Mpumalanga Province and Limpopo Province, South Africa, differed from other species and from each other in the shape of the gubernaculum, though were almost identical in other characters. Based on morphological and molecular data, specimens from two localities were assigned to Amphibiophilus sp. 1 and Amphibiophilus sp. 2. Pairwise analyses of ITS-28S and cox1 gene fragments are presented for four Amphibiophilus spp.

Anuran filarial nematodes are restricted to two comparatively small subfamilies (Icosiellinae and Waltonellinae) of the filariae that currently comprise six genera and 41 recognised species. However, the life histories of only five anuran filarial nematodes, proposed as an ancestral group based on molecular phylogenetic studies, have been elucidated. Furthermore, data on the natural vectors (in situ) and parasite transmission is limited. In the current study we elucidate the life history of Neofoleyellides boerewors n. gen. n. sp. parasitising the guttural toad, Sclerophrys gutturalis and the mosquito vectors Uranotaenia (Pseudoficalbia) mashonaensis and Uranotaenia (Pseudoficalbia) montana. Additionally, we report on the unique host-seeking behaviour of the mosquito vectors which locate their toad hosts using their calls. The complex host-vector relationship and specialised host-seeking behaviour by these mosquitoes indicate biases towards host species and male toad infections. ispartof: International Journal For Parasitology vol:50 issue:3 pages:177-194 ispartof: location:England status: published

Rhabdias delangei n. sp. (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae) is described from the lungs of the clicking stream frog Strongylopus grayii (Smith) in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. The new species is characterised by the nerve-ring being located just posterior to the mid-length of the oesophagus, a pre-equatorial vulva, as well as a thin-walled and apparently underdeveloped rectum. Pairwise analyses based on ITS-28S and partial cox1 gene fragments showed significant differences between R. delangei n. sp. and its congeners from the Afrotropical Realm. Rhabdias delangei n. sp. is the 12th species of Rhabdias Stiles & Hassall, 1905 recorded in Afrotropical amphibians and the second species of the genus found in pyxicephalid hosts. Our phylogenetic analysis based on the ITS-28S region showed that the new species is closely related to the European species R. rubrovenosa (Schneider, 1866). Furthermore, both species are similar with respect to the underdeveloped rectum and pre-equatorial position of vulva.

Background: Conservation relies on the strategic use of resources because monies for conservation action are limited, especially in developing countries. South Africa’s Frog Atlas project established a baseline for the country’s amphibian data and threat levels in 2004, and in 2009 a prioritisation exercise developed a strategy for conservation research. Objectives: In this article, we assess this strategy for conservation research. Method: We conducted a quantitative and qualitative assessment of research undertaken since the strategy was developed. Results: The strategy has produced a lasting impact on taxonomy, ecological studies, monitoring and capacity building. Publications in all areas have increased, but particularly in conservation ecology. Other indicators are increases in the numbers of locality records for target taxa, species descriptions and postgraduate degrees with amphibians as the principal topic. We document important milestones for South African amphibian conservation, including the first Biodiversity Management Plan for Species (BMP-S) for Hyperolius pickersgilli , a smart device app that uploads locality data to an open access database, 15 years of monitoring data and new amphibian identification books for adults and children. The Red List Index calculated for South African amphibians shows that the country’s species are becoming more threatened (a 1% reduction in 10 years), but a hindcasting exercise suggests that most of the damage was already done by 1990. We provide a checklist for 131 amphibian species in South Africa, of which 82 species are endemic. Conclusion: A strategy for conservation research was found to greatly augment the focus of research on South African frogs. A new strategy should focus on fewer taxa over meaningful time spans.

Background We use taxonomy to organize the world into recognizable units. Folk taxonomy deals with the naming and classification of organisms through culture. Unlike its scientific counterpart, folk taxonomy is mostly undocumented, the Zoological Code of Nomenclature does not regulate it, and the resulting names are specific to each culture. A growing body of literature is steadily shedding light on the principles underlying this pre-scientific taxonomy. Vernacular names can be an instrument to increase participation of non-scientists in biodiversity matters. In South Africa, great strides have been made in standardizing and increasing relatability of vernacular amphibian names in English and Afrikaans. However, there is a need to achieve the same with the country’s autochthonous languages which are used by a majority of the population. Methods This study investigates amphibian-related folk taxonomy using a semi-structured interview process in KwaZulu-Natal’s Zululand region and pilots methods of applying folk taxonomy principles to compile a comprehensive list of standardized indigenous frog names. Results Folk taxonomy in Zululand is systematic, developed, and bears similarities to other indigenous taxonomies around the world. Similarities also exist between folk and scientific taxonomy. Six uninomial indigenous names were found to be used for the 58 amphibian species occurring in the study area. The 58 species were assigned individual indigenous names using folk taxonomy guidelines supplemented with guidelines for modern taxonomies. Conclusions There is a gap in the documentation and investigation of amphibian folk taxonomy in South Africa. Standardization of indigenous frog names is required to increase their universality. Similarities between folk and modern taxonomies allow for supplementation of indigenous guidelines when compiling a comprehensive indigenous species list. Through this study, social inclusion in wildlife matters is increased, indigenous knowledge systems are promoted, and a contribution is made to the development of an indigenous South African language. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13002-019-0294-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2018 Amphibian diversity is declining at an alarming rate globally. Monitoring of amphibian communities is lax, yet vital to their conservation and understanding of their decline. Conservation areas often harbour rich biodiversity along with high anuran species richness. High human population density generally correlates positively with this high biodiversity, and consequently, high human population numbers are associated with an increased threat to biodiversity. This trend is evident at Ndumo Game Reserve (NGR), which falls within the internationally recognised Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Biodiversity Hotspot. The reserve is surrounded by rapidly growing, primarily rural settlements. The pressure on biodiversity grows as the human population increases. There is also risk to human wellbeing since a threat to biodiversity translates into a threat to the integrity of ecosystems on which people and wildlife depend. The conflict between conservation and development hampers attempts at effectively curbing the ongoing loss of biodiversity. Community-based conservation initiatives including Community-Based Ecotourism (CBE) present a means of satisfying both development and conservation objectives. This study contributes to amphibian conservation through the surveying and monitoring of amphibians and investigates various aspects of amphibian diversity at NGR. Results obtained from this study are applied to a community-based conservation initiative for NGR. Additionally, this study provides a supplementary benefit by promoting information and communications technology (ICT) use in an area of low development. Furthermore, the gap between people and biodiversity has been lessened through development of an English-isiZulu handbook on the frogs of Zululand. The book represents the first indigenous language guide to frogs in South Africa. This initiative serves as a pilot for introducing CBE based on amphibian diversity. It also is aimed at broadening understanding of amphibians across South Africa National Research Foundation (NRF) South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) North-West University (NWU) Masters

Chytridiomycosis has been identified as a major cause of global amphibian declines. Despite widespread evidence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection in South African frogs, sampling for this disease has not focused on threatened species, or whether this pathogen poses a disease risk to these species. This study assessed the occurrence of Bd-infection in South African Red List species. In addition, all known records of infection from South Africa were used to model the ecological niche of Bd to provide a better understanding of spatial patterns and associated disease risk. Presence and prevalence of Bd was determined through quantitative real-time PCR of 360 skin swab samples from 17 threatened species from 38 sites across the country. Average prevalence was 14.8% for threatened species, with pathogen load varying considerably between species. MaxEnt was used to model the predicted distribution of Bd based on 683 positive records for South Africa. The resultant probability threshold map indicated that Bd is largely restricted to the wet eastern and coastal regions of South Africa. A lack of observed adverse impacts on wild threatened populations supports the endemic pathogen hypothesis for southern Africa. However, all threatened species occur within the limits of the predicted distribution for Bd, exposing them to potential Bd-associated risk factors. Predicting pathogen distribution patterns and potential impact is increasingly important for prioritising research and guiding management decisions The Green Trust - Project number GT 1489. National Research Foundation, South Africa http://www.plosone.org/ http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0069591 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069591

Thesis (M.Sc. (Environmental Science))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011. This study resulted from the identification of gaps in the literature pertaining to the morphological descriptions of the tadpoles occurring at high altitudes in the Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa. These tadpoles are exposed to low temperatures, high desiccation risk, elevated ultraviolet radiation, competition, and predation and inhabit the clear, flowing streams and marsh areas of the mountain. Highly varying environmental conditions caused tadpoles to have considerable intraspecific variation. The high degree of plasticity necessitated extensive descriptive studies of tadpole morphology in order to document intraspecific variation and set up reliable keys for species identification. Specified adaptations to the extreme montane conditions are present in tadpoles of certain species. An especially interesting adaptation is the elygium, a hemispherical pigmented area above the eye, which apparently protects the retina from harmful ultraviolet radiation. There are no known studies of elygium plasticity in tadpole eyes in relation to variation in ultraviolet radiation. Particular attention was given to the functionality and cytology of this structure. Detailed measurements of tadpoles of six frog species of the high altitude Drakensberg Mountains were made. Morphological adaptations were described on the basis of these measurements. The cytological origin of the elygium of Amietia vertebralis was revealed through histological and cellular ultrastructure studies. The change in elygium morphology over time was studied as a function of ultraviolet intensity by exposing tadpoles to different levels of ultraviolet radiation. From the detailed morphological descriptions a more reliable binomial key was constructed, which made it possible to distinguish between Amietia umbraculata and A. vertebralis. A new amended definition of the epidermal elygium can now be given as an area of melanophores originating from the pigmented epithelium of the retina, forming a hemispherical shape from the dorsal margin of the iris. It is positioned in such a way as to protect the retina when light enters directly from above. This empirical study of the functional significance of the elygium showed that elygium morphology was considerably plastic, and that there were differences in elygium area and base length in the presence or absence of UVB radiation. In the presence of high UV radiation tadpoles produced an elygium with a broader base rather than longer elygia with a larger area. A wider elygium base shaded the pupil more effectively, thus protecting the retina from harmful UV radiation. The presence of a ventral elygium was also discovered. Masters