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Expanding on a framework introduced by Carl Rogers, an integral model of empathy in counseling uses empathic understanding through 3 ways of knowing: Subjective empathy enables a counselor to momentarily experience what it is like to be a client, interpersonal empathy relates to understanding a client's phenomenological experiencing, and objective empathy uses reputable knowledge sources outside of a client's frame of reference. Across the counseling process, empathy is integral to treatment strategies and interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perceptions of the value and application of interpretation in counseling vary widely among researchers and practitioners. An exploration of the use of interpretation in counseling often presents contradictory opinion and data. Relating counseling theories, propositional and semantic aspects, and attributional theory to interpretation assists in clarifying the nature of the technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article suggests considerations and strategies for identifying and modifying a client's defense mechanisms in counseling. A systematic approach to a client's mechanisms of defense contributes to therapeutic gain. Inappropriate counselor responses intensify an individual's defenses and undermine the counseling relationship. Definitions of individual defenses and indicators for identifying the mechanisms are provided. A literature review focuses on the counseling implications of the defenses. The process of defense mechanism modification is illustrated through a case example. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines theoretical and practical considerations for interpretation in group counseling. Application issues include the interpretation process, providers, recipients, content, depth, timing, and form. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses several defense mechanisms showed through the process of group counseling. Accordingly, the defense mechanisms cultured within a member of the group are mirrored from inception to termination of the counseling process, as they allegedly provide both a challenge and an opportunity for development. However, the counselor must be informed enough to discern these mechanisms. For instance, in one group counseling, denial was detected when a client refuses to accept responsibility for his inappropriate actions; displacement when he redirects feelings toward a vulnerable substitute rather than to their actual aim; identification when he assumes the actions of an admired person; and intellectualization when he uses advanced terminology with a minimal expression of effect.