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Voluminous hydrothermal circulation in the ∼3.48 Ga Dresser caldera produced zoned alteration haloes around major fluid pathways. Specifically, in the North Star Basalt (the footwall) hydrothermal alteration decreases with increasing distance from the margins of hydrothermal silica±barite veins, changing from argillic (i.e., kaolinite-quartz) to phyllic (i.e., illite-quartz), and then to either propylitic (i.e., chlorite-albite-epidote) or actinolitic (i.e., actinolite-albite-chlorite-epidote) assemblages at distal positions. This alteration series developed through hydrolysis reactions at decreasing acidic conditions, which promoted variable degrees of mobilization of major and trace elements in the hydrothermal fluids. In this study, we characterize the B and Li concentrations and the relative stable isotope ratios of the altered North Star Basalt to provide new insights into the hydrothermal processes that generated these complex alteration patterns. In particular, we focus on the magnitude and timing of the inputs from different fluid reservoirs, the mobilization of B and Li in the hydrothermal system of the Dresser caldera and their influence on the near-surface environment where ancient stromatolites were forming. Actinolitic and propylitic samples have homogeneous δ11B and δ7Li values (−17 to −15‰ and +1 to +3‰, respectively) that are associated with lower B and Li concentrations in actinolitic (4 to 11 ppm and 46 to 128 ppm, respectively) relative to propylitic samples (9 to 25 ppm and 176 to 305 ppm for B and Li, respectively). This pattern suggests that at least the propylitic assemblage interacted with alteration fluids of largely magmatic origin, thus excluding the possibility of an early seawater contributions to the hydrothermal system. Conversely, phyllic samples have distinctly higher B contents (57 to 99 ppm) and δ7Li values (+7 to +8‰), but have much lower δ11B values (−19 to −28‰) and Li contents (5 to 6 ppm) relative to actinolitic and propylitic samples. We argue that these striking differences are attributable to mineralogical and temperature controls that promoted the preferential removal of 6Li during chlorite dissolution and incorporation of 10B into illite. Furthermore, the highly negative δ11B values in phyllic samples suggest that the additional B incorporated into the altered North Star Basalt originated from the magma chamber underlying the Dresser caldera rather than from seawater or other crustal sources. The most intensely altered (argillic) samples have moderate B and Li contents (2 to 43 ppm and 41 to 71 ppm, respectively) and highly variable δ11B and δ7Li values (−24 to −0.4‰ and −10 to +11‰, respectively). These signatures are interpreted to represent the input of 'external' fluids into the upper portions of the hydrothermal system during periodic crack-seal events that allowed the influx of restricted amounts of seawater and, possibly, meteoric fluids. Overall, this study provides a novel non-traditional stable isotope perspective on the evolution of the hydrothermal system of the Dresser caldera that adds richness to our understanding of this complex environment. Both B and Li stable isotopes support a prominent magmatic contribution to the hydrothermal fluid budget, reinforcing the interpretation of a hot-spring origin of the tourmaline-bearing layers associated with the stromatolites of the North Pole Chert. • B and Li in the least-altered assemblages are likely to have a metasomatic origin. • Magmatically-derived hydrothermal fluids mobilized B and Li in the Dresser caldera. • The North Star Basalt experienced Li losses and B gains during phyllic alteration. • B and Li mobility was decoupled by mineralogical and temperature controls. • This study supports a hydrothermal origin of tourmaline layers in the Dresser Formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• ~3.48 Ga hydrothermal alteration preserved after 3 subsequent thermal overprints. • Alteration distribution is spatially controlled by the distance to the hydrothermal veins. • The underlying magma chamber influenced the composition and pH of the hydrothermal fluids. • Most of S, Ba and K added in the hydrothermal system was sourced from the underlying magma chamber. • Barium was transported in the hydrothermal fluids by colloidal silica. Hydrothermal fluids played a key role in establishing the environmental conditions in which ancient stromatolites grew within the North Pole Chert of the ~3.48 Ga Dresser Formation (Pilbara Craton, Western Australia). However, there has been uncertainty as to the physicochemical conditions of the hydrothermal system in relation to (i) the distribution of hydrothermal alteration, (ii) the relative contribution of seawater and/or magmatic volatiles to the hydrothermal fluids, and (iii) the origin of some of the major elements mobilized in the hydrothermal fluids. This study examines the hydrothermal alteration of the underlying North Star Basalt in order to better understand the nature of the circulating fluids and to determine the processes responsible for the transport and accumulation of metals and metalloids to the near surface environment. Detailed geological mapping reveals a complex distribution of alteration mineral assemblages that is controlled at all stratigraphic depths by the distance to the major fluid pathways that are now represented by hydrothermal silica veins. With increasing distance from the vein margins, alteration assemblages change from argillic (kaolinite–quartz) to phyllic (illite–quartz), and then to propylitic (chlorite–albite–epidote) and actinolitic (actinolite–albite–chlorite–epidote) at more distal positions. Illite Ar–Ar dating of argillic–altered basalt proximal to major hydrothermal veins immediately below the North Pole Chert confirms a syn–depositional hydrothermal origin of alteration, and demonstrates that the mineralogical and chemical features developed through the circulation of hydrothermal fluids were largely preserved after subsequent thermal overprints at 3.25, 3.06, and 2.29 Ga. The spatial distribution of the alteration mineral assemblages indicates that the fluids circulating in the hydrothermal system were highly acidic (pH < 3) for at least some time during the evolution of the Dresser Caldera. Such highly acidic fluid conditions were likely promoted by the input of magmatic volatile phases, such as HCl, SO 2 , H 2 S, and F. Bulk geochemical analyses of altered basalts reveal that large amount of metals, including Fe, Mg, Ni, and Zn, were leached from the North Star Basalt during hydrothermal alteration and delivered to the surface. Furthermore, our data indicate that K and Ba were introduced into the hydrothermal system from external reservoir(s). Although the contribution of K–rich seawater cannot be completely discounted, we argue that the bulk of K and Ba was sourced from an underlying magma chamber undergoing fractional crystallization of a melt with TTG–like composition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The bimodal fluid evolution of an Archean VHMS deposit. • The hydrothermal system was dominated in the early stage by seawater sulfate. • Remnants of C-rich of microbial sulfate reducers in early colloform pyrite. • The gradual formation of colloform lenses sealed the hydrothermal system. • The Zn-Ag mineralization sourced sulfur and fluids largely from magmatic reservoirs. Abstract The Nimbus Ag-Zn-(Au) volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) deposit represents an exceptional orebody in the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia. It is located in a zone of juvenile crust running N-S through the Eastern Goldfields Superterrane. However, unlike most other VHMS occurrences associated with the 2690–2680 Ma rift sequence (Teutonic Bore, Jaguar, Bentley, Erayinia), it is hosted by the ca. 2705 Ma plume-related stratigraphy, which is more typically associated with komatiite-hosted nickel-sulfide mineralization. The Nimbus deposit displays hybrid VHMS-epithermal characteristics resulting from low temperature and shallow water conditions, which developed a quartz-carbonate-sericite dominated alteration assemblage in the dacite host rocks. Sulfide mineralization comprises pyrite, sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, Ag-Sb-Pb-Bi sulfosalts, and rare chalcopyrite. In this study, we applied a combination of in-situ analytical techniques to monitor the evolving sulfur isotope signature of the mineralizing fluids, and propose that the Nimbus VHMS deposit developed as a result of a bimodal fluid history. In the first stage, the hydrothermal system – powered by plume-related magmatism – deposited a series of barren pyrite lenses with colloform textures. Their variable but consistently negative mass-independent sulfur isotope fractionation signature (Δ33S = −0.81%) reflects the interaction between mantle-derived magmatic fluids and Archean seawater. The ubiquitous presence of carbon-rich porous textures and the remnants of carbonaceous "nests" in colloform pyrite also indicate a significant contribution of microbial sulfate reducers during the incipient stages of sulfide precipitation. The gradual formation of colloform lenses eventually sealed the hydrothermal system establishing a physical barrier that limited the interaction with seawater. This process promoted the onset of higher temperature and pressure conditions required to form the high-grade Zn-Ag mineralization, sourcing sulfur and fluids largely from a magmatic reservoir (Δ33S = +0.09%). Whereas the identification of a predominantly magmatic sulfur source is supported by sulfur isotope signatures, the recognition of a magmatic origin of the fluid may only be inferred indirectly. It is consistent with the observed quartz-sericite alteration style and the proposed mechanism of sulfide deposition via decompression, which does not require any interaction with seawater. The trace element distribution of the ore-related sulfides also supports a closed hydrothermal system developed through multiple fluid pulses. Indeed, this ore-forming scenario is commonly favored by high confining pressures, which at Nimbus were established following the deposition of the colloform pyrite lenses that progressively sealed the hydrothermal system creating the favorable conditions for mineralization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]