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Fungal infection and aflatoxin contamination were evaluated on 114 samples of dried and milled spices such as ginger, garlic and black pepper from southern Benin and Togo collected in November 2008–January 2009. These products are dried to preserve them for lean periods available throughout the year. Fungal contamination was evaluated after plating on selective media with a total of 20 fungal genera identified, ranging from 7 in garlic to 14 in ginger. Ginger and pepper showed high incidence of fungal contamination compared to garlic that had lower levels of fungal contamination. Species of Aspergillus were dominant on all marketed dried and milled spices irrespective of country. Gene characterization and amplification analysis showed that most of the Aspergillus flavus isolates possess the cluster genes for aflatoxin production. Aflatoxin B1 assessment by Thin Layer Chromatography showed that only garlic (1 sample) and ginger (4 samples) were naturally contaminated with aflatoxin B1 ranging from 390 μg/kg to 1045 μg/kg respectively. Previous reports have mostly highlighted the risk of mycotoxin exposure from staple crops and vegetables in Africa, but such risks now need to be evaluated further for other products such as dried and milled spices.

Studies conducted in Benin, in which the main staple foods are maize, cassava, groundnuts and yams, showed high levels of aflatoxin residues in blood of the exposed population. The natural contamination with fungi and aflatoxins in cassava chips sold at markets in Benin, West Africa was investigated. A total of sixty samples were sampled from open markets in 11 districts of 3 agroecological zones and analyzed for the presence of mycoflora and aflatoxin B 1 , B 2 , G 1 and G 2 . Fourteen genera of fungi were associated with marketed dried cassava chips. Within these, twenty- two isolates were identified to species level, whereas four were identified only to genus. The dominating fungal species isolated were Rhizopus oryzae , Nigrospora oryzae , Chrysonilia sitophila , Cladosporium resinae , Cladosporium herbarum , Apergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus . Fifty-four out of sixty samples were contaminated with A . flavus . The rate of occurrence in CFU/g of A. flavus fungi was lower than for all other fungal species together. Aflatoxin was not detected in any of the samples analyzed using HPLC with post-column photochemical derivatization and fluorescence detection. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.1 μg/kg. Results from this study suggest cassava chips are unlikely to be a source of aflatoxin in Benin, and that other staples such as maize and groundnuts are more important in aflatoxin exposure. Therefore it can be speculated that staples like maize and groundnut are more important in aflatoxin exposure.

The scopoletin level in a cassava variety from Benin, BEN 86052, and the compounds effect on the growth of an Aspergillus flavus isolate from cassava chips were investigated. The influence on the biosynthesis of aflatoxins was also investigated. Scopoletin was quantified using high performance liquid chromatography. An in vitro test was used to evaluate the inhibitory effects of cassava flour extracts and pure scopoletin on growth and biosynthesis. The A. flavus isolate was genetically characterized to be an aflatoxin producer using polymerase chain reaction. Scopoletin was found in roots and chips with a level ranging from 4.9 to 242.5 mg/kg dry weight. Scopoletin induction was noticed after a peeling and drying process (6 days). Aflatoxin production by a strain of A. flavus holding the cluster Nor1, Omt1 and OmtB responsible for aflatoxin biosynthesis was inhibited by scopoletin and cassava flour at lower concentrations (0.024 mM). Scopoletin could be used on other commodities susceptible to mycotoxin contamination. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS Scopoletin accumulated in cassava variety used for chips production. Scopoletin inhibited the production of aflatoxin by toxigenic Aspergillus flavus. The use of this compound on other crops susceptible to fungi infection and aflatoxin contamination could be investigated to reduce food spoilage and mycotoxin contamination.

The presence of fungi, aflatoxins and fumonisin B1 in cassava and yam chips (during 28 processing and storage) were evaluated during two consecutive seasons in two agroecological zones of Benin (Northern Guinea Savannah, NGS and Sudan Savannah, SS). The Benin samples were assessed for moisture content, fungal infestation and total aflatoxin and fumonisin B1 contamination. During the two seasons, samples collected from the NGS, had moisture contents ranging from 10.0 to 14.7% in cassava chips and from 11.4 to 15.3% in yam chips. In samples from the SS, moisture content ranged from 10.1 to 14.5% and 11.1 to 14.5% in cassava and yam chips, respectively. A. flavus was the predominant fungal species. The maximum cfu/g in cassava and yam chips was 8950 and 6030, respectively. Other fungal species isolated included P. chrysogenum, M. piriformis, Phoma sorghina, F. verticillioides, R. oryzae and Nigrospora oryzae. High performance liquid chromatography analysis of both cassava and yam chips showed no contamination by either aflatoxins or fumonisin B1.