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Purpose: To compare power output and pacing between maximal 1500- and 2000-m on-water rowing performances., Methods: Twenty-six (female n = 4, male n = 22) international rowers, across 6 boat classes, completed maximal 1500- and 2000-m on-water races, separated by 24 to 48 hours. Crew combinations and seat orders remained consistent between races. Peach PowerLine instrumentation measured power output and stroke rate. Differences in completion time, mean power output (MPO), percentage prognostic velocity (PPV; percentage of world record velocity in each boat class), stroke rate, and pacing variance were assessed using linear mixed modeling., Results: Compared with 2000-m, completion times were 90.4 (6.1) seconds shorter over 1500 m (-24.7% [0.7%]). Both MPO (P = .255, ηp2=.06) and PPV (P = .340, ηp2=.18) were not different between distances. Broadly, crews adopted a reverse-J-shaped pacing across both distances, demonstrating a reduced variance over 1500 m (P = .035, ηp2=.62). Percentage change in MPO from 2000 to 1500 m demonstrated a strong negative association with pacing variance over 1500 m (R2 = .74, P = .027)., Conclusions: International rowing crews did not increase MPO or PPV when racing maximally over 1500 m compared to 2000 m. Comparable strategies were adopted over both distances, with less variance in pacing observed over 1500 m. The crews that demonstrated greater increases in MPO over the shorter race employed a flatter pacing strategy. To improve 1500-m on-water performance, rowers may need to adopt a more even pacing approach.

The aim of this study was to investigate acute performance and physiological responses to the manipulation of exercise-to-rest ratio (E:R) during repeated-sprint hypoxic training (RSH) in hot conditions. Twelve male team-sport players completed two experimental sessions at a simulated altitude of ∼3000 m (F I O 2 0.144), air temperature of 40°C and relative humidity of 50%. Exercise involved either 3 × 5 × 10-s (E:R 1:2 ) or 3 × 10 × 5-s (E:R 1:4 ) maximal cycling sprints interspersed with active recoveries at 120W (20-s between sprints, 2.5 and 5-min between sets for E:R 1:2 and E:R 1:4 respectively). Sessions were matched for overall sprint and total session duration (47.5-min). Peak and mean power output, and total work were greater in E:R 1:4 than E:R 1:2 ( p  < 0.05). Peak core temperature was significantly higher in E:R 1:4 than E:R 1:2 (38.44 ± 0.33 vs. 38.20 ± 0.35°C, p  = 0.028). Muscle deoxygenation magnitude during sprints was greater in E:R 1:2 (28.2 ± 1.6 vs. 22.4 ± 4.6%, p  < 0.001), while muscle reoxygenation did not differ between conditions ( p  > 0.05). These results indicate E:R 1:4 increased mechanical power output and core temperature compared to E:R 1:2 . Both protocols had different effects on measures of muscle oxygenation, with E:R 1:2 generating greater muscle oxygen extraction and E:R 1:4 producing more muscle oxygenation flux, which are both important signals for peripheral adaptation. We conclude that the E:R manipulation during RSH in the heat might be used to target different physiological and performance outcomes, with these findings forming a strong base for future mechanistic investigation. Highlights During a typical repeated-sprint training session conducted in hot and hypoxic conditions, an exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:4 during sprint efforts displayed an increased mechanical power output compared to an exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:2. This represents a potentially useful increase in training stimulus.An exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:2 generated greater muscle oxygen extraction, while an exercise-to-rest ratio of 1:4 resulted in more muscle oxygenation flux and a higher core temperature, indicating key markers of environment-related physiological strain were varied between conditions.Exercise-to-rest ratio manipulation may be used to target different physiological and performance outcomes when prescribing repeated-sprint training in hot and hypoxic conditions.

The present study aims to investigate the acute performance and physiological responses, with specific reference to muscle oxygenation, to ambient air temperature manipulation during repeated-sprint training in hypoxia (RSH). Thirteen male team-sport players completed one familiarisation and three experimental sessions at a simulated altitude of ∼3000 m (F I O 2 0.144). Air temperatures utilised across the three experimental sessions were: 20°C, 35°C and 40°C (all 50% relative humidity). Participants performed 3 × 5 × 10-s maximal cycle sprints, with 20-s passive recovery between sprints, and 5 min active recovery between sets. There were no differences between conditions for cycling peak power, mean power, and total work ( p >0.05). Peak core temperature (Tc) was not different between conditions (38.11 ± 0.36°C). Vastus lateralis muscle deoxygenation during exercise and reoxygenation during recovery was of greater magnitude in 35°C and 40°C than 20°C ( p <0.001 for all). There was no condition × time interaction for Tc, skin temperature, pulse oxygen saturation, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion and thermal sensation ( P >0.05). Exercise-induced increases in blood lactate concentration were higher in 35°C and 40°C than 20°C ( p =0.010 and p =0.001, respectively). Integrating ambient temperatures up to 40°C into a typical RSH session had no detrimental effect on performance. Additionally, the augmented muscle oxygenation changes experienced during exercise and recovery in temperatures ≥35°C may indicate that the potency of RSH training is increased with additional heat. However, alterations to the training session may be required to generate a sufficient rise in Tc for heat training purposes. Highlights Heat exposure (35-40°C) did not affect mechanical performance during a typical RSH session. This indicates hot ambient temperature can be implemented during RSH, without negative consequence to training output.Hotter ambient conditions (35-40°C) likely result in greater muscle oxygenation changes during both exercise and recovery compared to temperate conditions.Although hotter sessions were perceived as more difficult and more thermally challenging, they did not further elevate Tc beyond that of temperate conditions. Accordingly, if intended to be used for heat acclimation purposes, alterations to the session may be required to increase heat load.

Background: World Rowing's decision to support the proposed change from a 2000-m to a 1500-m regatta course at the 2028 Olympic Games in Los Angeles is anticipated to have important implications for athlete preparation and race execution during the 2024-2028 quadrennium., Purpose: This commentary aims to provide insight into the expected implications of the reduction in course length heading into the 2028 Games, focusing on the training and monitoring of high-performance rowers, as well as tactical, technical, and pacing considerations for performance. The reduction in event duration (estimated to be ∼90-120 s across all event classes) will lead to an expected ∼5% to 15% increase in relative contribution of anaerobic metabolism. Consequently, adjustment in training periodization priorities toward higher-intensity interventions may be required, especially in the period immediately prior to the games. The critical-power and anaerobic-power-reserve concepts may become more useful tools for structuring exercise programs, evaluating training outcomes, and determining event suitability through individual physiological profiling. Additionally, the adoption of a more constant (flat) pacing strategy, rather than the commonly used reverse J-shaped approach, might be considered for racing over this new distance. Finally, technical aspects, such as stroke rate and gearing, may require adjustment for optimal performance; however, research is clearly required to explore such effects., Conclusions: Our intention is to stimulate discussion and debate, with the provision of practical recommendations that aim to optimize rowers' preparation for and performance at the 2028 Olympic Games.

Quantification of external training load for sprint kayak athletes can be challenging due to the influence of the water flow on boat velocity in a flowing river environment. Therefore, this study examined the utility of novel measures of power output (PO) and its relationship to measures of relative boat speed when training on a flowing river. Twelve (8 males, 4 female) well-trained sprint kayak athletes completed 4 separate on-water sessions comprising one time-trial session (2 × 1000-m maximal efforts) and three repeated sprint kayak training sessions (5 x split 1000-m [2 × 500-m up and down the river] submaximal efforts) in their individual (K1) kayak. For each session, a Kayak Power Meter recorded athletes' PO, and a SpeedCoach device recorded relative land-speed via a Global Positioning System (GPS) ( S GPS ), and relative water-speed via an impeller mounted under the boat hull ( S IMP ). Non-linear least squares regression were used to evaluate the curvilinear relationship between PO and speed ( S GPS and S IMP ) data. The exponents of velocity in the PO- S IMP relationship (2.87 females, 2.94 males) were closer to theoretical values (3.00) and showed greater model accuracy (root mean squared error (RMSE) = 20-26 W) than the PO- S GPS relationships (speed exponents = 1.58-2.02, RMSE = 31-40 W). Overall, PO measures could better account for the influence of water flow compared to traditional S GPS measures, and therefore, may be more suitable for quantifying athletes' external load in their training environment. Highlights Since traditional S GPS and time-to-completion measures do not adjust for the water flow, these measures appear limited for prescribing and monitoring sprint kayak training within flowing river environments.The prescription of paddling PO across a wide spectrum of relative PO values elicited similar internal and external athlete responses, regardless of the direction travelled on a flowing river (i.e. upstream or downstream).The relationship between PO and S IMP during on-water sprint kayaking appears similar to those observed in rowing, where every percent change in boat speed measured relative to water ( S IMP ) requires a 2.87 and 2.94-fold percent change in paddling PO in female and male sprint kayak athletes, respectively.Continued evaluation of the PO-speed relationship for individual athletes may provide further insight into modelling performance and training targets for sprint kayak athletes.

Abstract: Tapsell, LC, Binnie, MJ, Lay, BS, Dawson, BT, and Goods, PSR. Validity and reliability of a field hockey-specific dribbling speed test. J Strength Cond Res 36(6): 1720-1725, 2022-The present study aimed to design a valid and reliable test for field hockey players that concurrently assesses the skill of dribbling and sport-specific agility. In total, 27 male and 32 female subjects were recruited from amateur (n = 20), state-level (n = 22), and national-level (n = 17) field hockey teams. The test course was developed in consultation with state- and national-level field hockey coaches, and using match analyses from existing literature. Subjects were familiarized before completing a testing session that consisted of 3 maximal-effort trials through a field hockey-specific course while dribbling a hockey ball, and another 3 trials of the same course without dribbling the ball. Amateur and state subjects completed an additional session for test-retest reliability analysis. Electronic timing gates recorded time to complete the course with the ball (DRIBBLE), without the ball (SPRINT), and the difference between DRIBBLE and SPRINT (DELTA). With significance set at p < 0.05, subjects of higher playing levels recorded significantly faster DRIBBLE (p < 0.001) and significantly lower DELTA (p < 0.001) times. No significant difference was found between player levels for SPRINT (p = 0.484) times. Intraclass correlations were 0.84 and 0.81 for DELTA and DRIBBLE, respectively. In conclusion, the dribbling test trialed here has sufficient validity and reliability for use in performance testing of field hockey athletes and can be implemented across playing levels to objectively track skill progression., (Copyright © 2020 National Strength and Conditioning Association.)

Purpose: This study aimed to assess the influence of graded air temperatures during repeated-sprint training in hypoxia (RSH) on performance and physiological responses., Methods: Ten well-trained athletes completed one familiarization and 4 experimental sessions at a simulated altitude of 3000 m (0.144 FIO2) above sea level. Air temperatures utilized across the 4 experimental sessions were 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, and 35°C (all 50% relative humidity). The participants performed 3 sets of 5 × 10 seconds "all-out" cycle sprints, with 20 seconds of active recovery between sprints and 5 minutes of active recovery between sets (recovery intensity = 120 W). Core temperature, skin temperature, pulse oxygen saturation, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and thermal sensation were collected., Results: There were no differences between conditions for peak power, mean power, and total work in each set (P > .05). There were no condition × time interaction effects for any variables tested. The peak core temperature was highest at 30°C (38.06°C [0.31°C]). Overall, the pulse oxygen saturation was higher at 35°C than at 20°C (P < .001; d < 0.8), 25°C (P < .001; d = 1.12 ± 0.54, large), and 30°C (P < .001; d = 0.84 ± 0.53, large)., Conclusion: Manipulating air temperature between 20°C and 35°C had no effect on performance or core temperature during a typical RSH session. However, the pulse oxygen saturation was preserved at 35°C, which may not be a desirable outcome for RSH interventions. The application of increased levels of ambient heat may require a different approach if augmenting the RSH stimulus is the desired outcome.

This study compared warm-up strategies employed by sub-elite and world-class elite sprint kayak athletes, evaluating their impact on subsequent race performance. Forty-seven (n = 33 male, n = 14 female) athletes competing at a National Sprint Kayak Championships had Global Navigation Satellite System devices fitted to their kayak to measure speed, distance and stroke rate during the on-water warm-up before racing (OW WU ), and during racing. The OW WU total duration, average/peak speeds and stroke rates, and the time spent in speed-zones classified based upon athletes' relative race-pace (low-to-moderate, moderate-to-high, and race-specific) were compared between events, sexes, and athlete standard. The relationship of these variables to subsequent race performance, expressed as a percentage of the best time-to-completion for each event (%racebest), was also examined. Women spent greater OW WU time at moderate-to-high and race-specific speeds compared to men prior to 200-m and 500-m races ( P ≤.001). Sub-elite men reported greater total OW WU duration for 200-m and 500-m ( P ≤.025), but not for 1000-m races ( P >.05) compared to elite men. Finally, %racebest had large inverse correlations to OW WU peak speed for men's 200-m (r = -.53), and average stroke rate for women's 500-m races (r = -.50). This study provides valuable insight for competition warm-up routines based upon data from an elite athlete population.

This study examined the utility of novel measures of power output (PO) compared to traditional measures of heart rate (HR) and stroke rate (SR) for quantifying high-intensity sprint kayak training. Twelve well-trained, male and female sprint kayakers (21.3 ± 6.8 y) completed an on-water graded exercise test (GXT) and a 200-, 500- and 1000-m time-trial for the delineation of individualised training zones (T) for HR (5-zone model, T1-T5), SR and PO (8-zone model, T1-T8). Subsequently, athletes completed two repeat trials of a high-intensity interval (HIIT) and a sprint interval (SIT) training session, where intensity was prescribed using individualised PO-zones. Time-in-zone (minutes) using PO, SR and HR was then compared for both HIIT and SIT. Compared to PO, time-in-zone using HR was higher for T1 in HIIT and SIT ( P  < 0.001, d  ≥ 0.90) and lower for T5 in HIIT ( P  < 0.001, d  = 1.76). Average and peak HR were not different between HIIT (160 ± 9 and 173 ± 11 bpm, respectively) and SIT (157 ± 13 and 174 ± 10 bpm, respectively) ( P  ≥ 0.274). In HIIT, time-in-zone using SR was higher for T4 ( P  < 0.001, d  = 0.85) and was lower for T5 ( P  = 0.005, d  = 0.43) and T6 ( P  < 0.001, d  = 0.94) compared to PO. In SIT, time-in-zone using SR was lower for T7 ( P  = 0.001, d  = 0.66) and was higher for T8 ( P  = 0.004, d  = 0.70), compared to PO. Heart rate measures were unable to differentiate training demands across different high-intensity sessions, and could therefore misrepresent the training load in such instances. Furthermore, SR may not provide a sensitive measure for detecting changes in intensity due to fatigue, whereas PO may be more suitable.

A strong foundation in physical conditioning and sport-specific experience, in addition to a bespoke and periodized training and nutrition program, are essential for athlete development. Once these underpinning factors are accounted for, and the athlete reaches a training maturity and competition level where marginal gains determine success, a role may exist for the use of evidence-based performance supplements. However, it is important that any decisions surrounding performance supplements are made in consideration of robust information that suggests the use of a product is safe, legal, and effective. The following review focuses on the current evidence-base for a number of common (and emerging) performance supplements used in sport. The supplements discussed here are separated into three categories based on the level of evidence supporting their use for enhancing sports performance: (1) established (caffeine, creatine, nitrate, beta-alanine, bicarbonate); (2) equivocal (citrate, phosphate, carnitine); and (3) developing. Within each section, the relevant performance type, the potential mechanisms of action, and the most common protocols used in the supplement dosing schedule are summarized.

This study compared the effect of an 8-week preseason conditioning program conducted on a sand (SAND) or grass (GRASS) surface on 20-m sprint performance. Twelve team-sport athletes were required to attend three 1-hour training sessions per week, including 2 surface-specific sessions (SAND, n = 6 or GRASS, n = 6) and 1 group session (conducted on grass). Throughout the training period, 20-m sprint times of all athletes were recorded on both sand and grass surfaces at the end of weeks 1, 4, and 8. Results showed a significant improvement in 20-m sand time in the SAND group only (p < 0.05), whereas 20-m grass time improved equally in both training subgroups (p < 0.05). These results suggest that surface-specificity is essential for 20-m speed improvements on sand and also that there is no detriment to grass speed gains when incorporating sand surfaces into a preseason program.

This study compared the effect of sand and grass training surfaces during a common preseason interval training session in well-trained team sport athletes (n = 10). The participants initially completed a preliminary testing session to gather baseline (BASE) performance data for vertical jump, repeated sprint ability, and a 3-km running time trial (RTT). Three days subsequent to BASE, all the athletes completed the first interval training session, which was followed by a repeat of the BASE performance tests the following day (24 hours postexercise). Seven days later, the same interval training session was completed on the opposing surface and was again followed 24 hours later by the BASE performance tests. During each session, blood lactate (BLa), ratings of perceived exertion, and heart rate (HR) were recorded. Additionally, venous blood was collected preexercise, postexercise, and 24 hours postexercise and analyzed for serum concentrations of myoglobin, creatine kinase, haptoglobin, and C-reactive protein. Results showed significantly higher BLa and HR responses experienced during the SAND session (p < 0.05), with no differences observed between surfaces for the blood markers of muscle damage, inflammation, and hemolysis (p > 0.05). Twenty-four hours later, the RTT was performed significantly faster after the SAND session compared with GRASS (p = 0.001). These results suggest that performing interval training on a sand (vs. grass) surface can result in a greater physiological response, without any additional detriment to next day endurance performance.

This study compared the effect of sand and grass training surfaces during a sport-specific conditioning session in well-trained team sport athletes (n = 10). The participants initially completed a preliminary testing session to gather baseline (BASE) performance data for vertical jump, repeated sprint ability, and 3-km running time trial. Three days subsequent to BASE, all the athletes completed the first sport-specific conditioning session, which was followed by a repeat of the BASE performance tests the following day (24 hours postexercise). Seven days later, the same training session was completed on the opposing surface and was again followed 24 hours later by the BASE performance tests. During each session, blood lactate, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), and heart rate (HR) were recorded, with player movement patterns also monitored via global positioning system units. Additionally, venous blood was collected preexercise, postexercise, and 24 hours postexercise, and analyzed for serum concentrations of Myoglobin, Haptoglobin, and C-Reactive Protein. Results showed significantly higher HR and RPE responses on SAND (p > 0.05), despite significantly lower distance and velocity outputs for the training session (p > 0.05). There were no differences in 24 hours postexercise performance (p > 0.05), and blood markers of muscle damage, inflammation and hemolysis were also similar between the surfaces (p > 0.05). These results suggest that performing a sport-specific conditioning session on a sand (vs. grass) surface can result in a greater physiological response, without any additional decrement to next-day performance.

This study investigated the effect of 3 warm-up procedures on subsequent swimming and overall triathlon performance. Seven moderately trained, amateur triathletes completed 4 separate testing sessions comprising 1 swimming time trial (STT) and 3 sprint distance triathlons (SDT). Before each SDT, the athletes completed 1 of three 10-minute warm-up protocols including (a) a swim-only warm-up (SWU), (b) a run-swim warm-up (RSWU), and (c) a control trial of no warm-up (NWU). Each subsequent SDT included a 750-m swim, a 500-kJ (∼20 km) ergometer cycle and a 5-km treadmill run, which the athletes performed at their perceived race intensity. Blood lactate, ratings of perceived exertion, core temperature, and heart rate were recorded over the course of each SDT, along with the measurement of swim speed, swim stroke rate, and swim stroke length. There were no significant differences in individual discipline split times or overall triathlon times between the NWU, SWU, and RSWU trials (p > 0.05). Furthermore, no difference existed between trials for any of the swimming variables measured (p > 0.05) nor did they significantly differ from the preliminary STT (p > 0.05). The findings of this study suggest that warming up before an SDT provides no additional benefit to subsequent swimming or overall triathlon performance.