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On Mars, condensation is the major factor constraining the vertical distribution of water vapor. Recent measurements of water and temperature profiles showed that water can be strongly supersaturated at and above the level where clouds form during the aphelion and perihelion seasons. Since 2018, the near‐infrared spectrometer (NIR) of the Atmospheric Chemistry Suite onboard the Trace Gas Orbiter has measured H2O and temperature profiles using solar occultation in the infrared from below 10 to 100 km of altitude. Here, we provide the first long‐term monitoring of the water saturation state. The survey spans 2 Martian years from Ls = 163° of MY34 to Ls = 170° of MY36. We found that water is often supersaturated above aerosol layers. In the aphelion season, the water mixing ratio above 40 km in the mid‐to‐high latitudes was below 3 ppmv and yet is found to be supersaturated. Around the perihelion, water is also supersaturated above 60 km with a mixing ratio of 30–50 ppmv. Stronger saturation is observed during the dusty season in MY35 compared to what was observed in MY34 during the Global Dust Storm and around the perihelion. Saturation varied between the evening and morning terminators in response to temperature modulation imparted by thermal tides. Although water vapor is more abundant in the evening, colder morning temperatures induce a daily peak of saturation. This data set establishes a new paradigm for water vapor on Mars, revealing that supersaturation is nearly ubiquitous, particularly during the dust season, thereby promoting water escape on an annual average. Plain Language Summary: The rate of water loss from Mars depends on hydrogen, the main product of the H2O photodissociation escaping from the upper atmosphere. The ability of water to reach high altitudes and to be a direct source of atomic hydrogen is limited by cloud formation, which holds water vapor in the lower atmosphere. This process is regulated by temperature and pressure. Condensation starts when the temperature is cold enough and condensation nuclei (CN) (e.g., small dust particles) are available. If CN are lacking, or their sizes are too small, or the temperature drops too fast, then water vapor becomes supersaturated. Recent studies have shown that Martian water vapor is often supersaturated. Here, we present the first seasonal cycle of the saturation state from simultaneous measurements of water and temperature during two Martian years by Atmospheric Chemistry Suite on the Trace Gas Orbiter. Our results show that supersaturation is typical on Mars. It occurs above clouds both in the aphelion and perihelion seasons as well as in the lower polar atmosphere. We demonstrate supersaturation to be an important factor facilitating the escape of water. Unlike the Earth, water easily penetrates the upper atmosphere and reaches photodissociation altitudes. Key Points: Long‐term observations of H2O saturation state in the atmosphere of Mars show that supersaturation is nearly ubiquitous above aerosol layersDuring the dusty season, the supersaturation is stronger in MY35 compared to MY34More water was found in the evening terminator and stronger supersaturation in the morning terminator [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbon monoxide is a non‐condensable gas in the Martian atmosphere produced by the photolysis of CO2. Its abundance responds to the condensation and sublimation of CO2 from the polar caps, resulting in seasonal variations of the CO mixing ratio. ACS onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter have measured CO in infrared bands by solar occultation. Here we provide the first long‐term monitoring of the CO vertical distribution at the altitude range from 0 to 80 km for 1.5 Martian years from Ls = 163° of MY34 to the end of MY35. We obtained a mean CO mixing ratio of ∼960 ppmv at latitudes from 45°S to 45°N and altitudes below 40 km, mostly consistent with previous observations. We found a strong enrichment of CO near the surface at Ls = 100–200° in high southern latitudes with a layer of 3,000–4,000 ppmv, corresponding to local depletion of CO2. At equinoxes we found an increase of the CO mixing ratio above 50 km to 3,000–4,000 ppmv at high latitudes of both hemispheres explained by the downwelling flux of the Hadley circulation on Mars, which drags the CO enriched air. General circulation models tend to overestimate the intensity of this process, bringing too much CO. The observed minimum of CO in the high and mid‐latitudes southern summer atmosphere amounts to 700–750 ppmv, agreeing with nadir measurements. During the global dust storm of MY34, when the H2O abundance peaks, we see less CO than during the calm MY35, suggesting an impact of HOx chemistry on the CO abundance. Plain Language Summary: Carbon monoxide (CO) is a product of the photodissociation of the main component of the Martian atmosphere, CO2 (96%). During the polar night on Mars, the temperature drops so low that ∼30% of the global atmospheric carbon dioxide freezes out, condensed into snowflakes. They settle to the ground to form a seasonal polar cap, which sublimates in spring. Unlike CO2, CO is not a condensable species, so its relative abundance increases when CO2 and the atmospheric pressure drops, forming a prominent seasonal cycle. This behavior of CO was well documented by spacecraft measurements of column abundances, while its vertical distribution remained poorly known until recently. Still, it helps to separate the impacts of atmospheric dynamics and chemistry, addressing the problem of the Martian atmosphere's stability. We present the first climatology of the CO vertical distribution lasting more than one Martian year based on solar occultations by the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. We report a previously unobserved CO layer near the surface in high southern latitudes in late winter and spring and document the difference between two Martian years caused by the global dust storm. These observations give new challenges to General Circulation Models for understanding the modern atmosphere of Mars. Key Points: The first climatology of CO vertical profiles is collected for the period Ls = 163° of Martian Year 34 to the end of Martian Year 35The mean CO volume mixing ratio is ∼960 ppmv at 0–35 km and 45°S–45°NStrong enrichment of CO, >3,000 ppmv, is detected at 10–20 km at Ls = 100–200 in high southern latitudes and above 50 km at equinoxes near Poles [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Isotopic ratios in atmospheric CO2 are shaped by various processes throughout Mars' history, and can help understand what the atmosphere of early Mars was like to sustain liquid water on its surface. In this study, we monitor the O and C isotopic composition of CO2 between 70 and 130 km for more than half a Martian year using solar occultation observations by the Atmospheric Chemistry Suite onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. We find the vertical trends of the isotopic ratios to be consistent with the expectations from diffusive separation above the homopause, with average values below this altitude being consistent with Earth‐like fractionation (δ13C = −3 ± 37‰; δ18O = −29 ± 38‰; and δ17O = −11 ± 41‰). Using these measurements, we estimate that at least 20%–40% of primordial C on Mars has escaped to space throughout history. The total amount of C lost from the atmosphere is likely to be well in excess of this lower limit, due to carbonate formation and further sink processes. In addition, we propose a photochemical transfer of light O from H2O to CO2 to explain the larger enrichment in the O18/O16 ${}^{18}\mathrm{O}/{}^{16}\mathrm{O}$ ratio in H2O than in CO2. Plain Language Summary: There is ample evidence suggesting that liquid water was abundant on the surface of Mars in the past. However, climatic conditions on early Mars must have been very different from the ones we observe today to sustain liquid water on its surface. The ratios of the heavy and light isotopes in different species provide a very useful tool to estimate the early climate of Mars. In this study, we monitor the isotopic ratios of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Mars to provide more accurate estimates of these. With our measurements, and in context with previous studies, we estimate that at least 20%–40% of the carbon reservoir has been lost to space throughout Martian history. This, together with the sequestration of atmospheric C on the surface in the form of minerals, is consistent with the idea that the atmosphere of early Mars was denser than the one we observe today. Key Points: Isotopic ratios in CO2 are observed to be consistent with telluric standards and to fractionate by diffusive separation above the homopauseAt least 20%–40% of the C reservoir has escaped to space throughout Martian historyThe higher 18O/16O ratio in H2O than in CO2 may be explained by a photochemical transfer of lighter O from H2O to CO2 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the first water vapor profiles encompassing the upper mesosphere of Mars, 100–120 km, far exceeding the maximum altitudes where remote sensing has been able to observe water to date. Our results are based on solar occultation measurements by Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) onboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO). The observed wavelength range around 2.7 μm possesses strong CO2 and H2O absorption lines allowing sensitive temperature and density retrievals. We report a maximum H2O mixing ratio varying from 10 to 50 ppmv at 100–120 km during the global dust storm (GDS) of Martian Year (MY) 34 and around southern summer solstice of MY 34 and 35. During other seasons water remains persistently below ∼2 ppmv. We claim that contributions of the MY34 GDS and perihelion periods into the projected hydrogen escape from Mars are nearly equivalent. Plain Language Summary: We report regular events of high abundances of the water vapor (H2O) in the upper atmosphere of Mars (100–120 km). So far, any water enrichment has not been revealed by remote sensing at such high altitudes. Higher than 80 km, solar light breaks water vapor molecules into H and O atoms, which may reach the exosphere and escape the planet. When Mars is closer to the Sun (the perihelion season), the atmosphere's circulation intensifies, causing increased dust activity with global dust storms (GDS), occurring every 3–4 Mars years. We observed during the second halves of Martian years 34 and 35 (2018–2020), including one GDS and two perihelion seasons. We report that the maximum water relative abundance reaches 10–50 parts per million in volume (ppmv) at 100–120 km during the GDS and every perihelion season. These high values indicate that the Martian atmosphere above 100 km regularly hosts large amounts of water, facilitating the long‐term escape of water from the planet. Key Points: Water abundances are reported in a previously unexplored altitude range: from 100 to 120 kmThe observed GDS (MY34) and two perihelion seasons (MY34, 35) reveal the H2O content around 10–50 parts per million by volume at 100–120 kmContributions of the MY34 GDS and perihelion periods into the projected hydrogen escape from Mars are nearly equivalent [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter began science operations in April 2018. We report on dataprocessing and analysis for the Atmospheric Chemistry Suite mid-infrared channel(ACSMIR) for the first year of operations. ACS MIR is a cross-dispersion spectrometer operatingin solar occultation mode. Level 0 data (raw detector images) are processed at the SpaceResearch Institute in Moscow (IKI) and spectral and wavenumber calibration areperformed at LATMOS in Paris to produce a level 1 data product of transmissionspectra. Trace gas retrievals are performed at LATMOS with the JPL Gas Fittingsoftware (GFIT). We present retrievals of volume mixing ratio (VMR) verticalprofiles of major gas species (CO, H2O, HDO) and the current state of our searchfor undetected gases (e.g., hydrocarbons, sulphur and chlorine bearing species).Preliminary results show a dependence on latitude for CO above 50 km, a correlationbetween water vapour content and dust loading, and low upper limits for CH4. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) is a joint ESA-Roscosmos mission to Mars that waslaunched in March 2016. The nominal science phase with regular measurement could onlystart 2 years later, that is in late spring 2018. The Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) is a setof three spectrometers (NIR, MIR, and TIRVIM), capable of sounding Mars’ atmosphere innadir and solar occultation modes. The design of the middle infrared (MIR) channel wasoptimized to overachieve the primary science goal of the TGO mission by accomplishing themost sensitive measurements ever of the trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere. Thehigh aperture of the spectrometer, the ultra-high spectral resolution, and a fast onboard frameprocessing ensure quality meeting the highest standards. Besides methane survey, ACSMIR is capable of investigating many other minor species: CH2O, HCl, HO2, andothers. Preliminary results and status of this work will be presented in the talk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The molecular oxygen is the minor constituent of the Martian atmosphere with the meanmixing ratio of (1.56 ± 0.06) 10−3. As it is a long-lived incondensable species(with the lifetime ∼60 years) the O2 mixing ratio should have latitudinal variationsinduced by condensation and sublimation of CO2 from the polar caps that result inenrichment and depletion and seasonal variations following the total CO2 amount inthe atmosphere. The O2 column-averaged mixing ratio was provided by severalground-based observations as well as by Herschel orbiting observatory. Now the highprecision measurements of the O2 mean surface mixing ratio were obtained by thequadrupole mass spectrometer as a part of Mars Science Laboratory at the Curiosityrover. The Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) is a set of three spectrometers (-NIR, -MIR, and-TIRVIM) intended to observe Mars atmosphere onboard the ESA-Roscosmos ExoMars2016 Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) mission. The near infrared channel (NIR) is a compactspectrometer operating in the range of 0.7–1.7 μm with a resolving power of λ/Δλ ∼25,000. It is designed to operate in nadir and in solar occultation modes. A verticalprofiling of the O2 density based on 0.76 μm band is a unique feature of the ACSNIR science in occultation. No other instrument on a Mars orbiting platform beingsensitive to O2 from 10 to 60 km altitude range. Here we present the first results ofthe O2 density retrievals from the ACS/NIR solar occultations for the first yearof observations and the comparison with the LMD General Circulation model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) on board ESA-Roscosmos ExoMars Trace GasOrbiter started routine science operations in March 2018. The mid-infrared channel (MIR),operating in the 2.2-4.4 μm range, allows the detection of trace gases in the Martianatmosphere, as well as the simultaneous profiling of several species in solar occultationobservations. We report retrievals in the 2.51 – 2.64 μm spectral region which allow simultaneousmeasurement, for the first time, of vertical profiles of H216O, H218O, H217O and HD16O.The spectral region also includes CO2 spectral lines which allow temperature and pressureretrieval through the assumption of hydrostatic equilibrium. Monitoring of this spectral region with ACS-MIR will provide a better understanding ofthe isotopic fractionation of water vapour, its local and seasonal variability, and itsfractionation in condensation/evaporation processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]