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Parents of children with autism spectrum disorder appear to experience high levels of psychological distress, yet little is known about the prevalence of psychological disorders in this population. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to estimate the proportion of these parents who experience clinically significant psychopathology. Articles reporting proportions of psychological disorders in a sample of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder were located. The initial search returned 25,988 articles. Thirty-one studies with a total sample of 9208 parents were included in the final review. The median meta-analytic proportions were 31% (95% confidence interval = [24%, 38%]) for depressive disorders, 33% (95% confidence interval = [20%, 48%]) for anxiety disorders, 10% (95% confidence interval = [1%, 41%]) for obsessive-compulsive disorder, 4% (95% confidence interval = [0%, 22%]) for personality disorders, 2% (95% confidence interval = [1%, 4%]) for alcohol and substance use disorders and 1% (95% confidence interval = [0%, 5%]) for schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Significant heterogeneity was detected in these categories. Further research is needed to gain more insight into variables that may moderate parental psychopathology. This review and meta-analysis is the first to provide prevalence estimates of psychological disorders in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder.

Background: Although parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit high levels of parenting stress, minimal research has examined the type of stress they experience. Understanding parenting stress is critical as the effects are not limited to the parent. The aim of this study was to investigate the validity of conceptualising parenting stress within a traumatic stress framework. Method: Twelve mothers participated in focus groups, which were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used, then researchers examined for spontaneous reporting of DSM-5-defined traumatic stressors and trauma symptomatology. Results: Forty percent of mothers experienced traumatic stressors and trauma-related symptomatology. Sixty percent of mothers did not report traumatic stressors but reported trauma-related symptomatology regardless. Conclusions: The use of a traumatic stress framework to conceptualise some parenting experiences was supported. This finding has important implications for the development of interventions to prevent or reduce stress.

This study explored the attitudes of parents and professionals who work with children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) toward the utilization of iPads and use of iPad applications by children with ASD. A survey of parents (n = 90) and professionals (n = 31) assessed information and communication technology (ICT) anxiety and self-efficacy, attitude toward ICT and iPad applications, and iPad utilization. Both parents and professionals held positive attitudes toward ICT and iPad use for children with ASD. Parents reported high use of iPads by their children, and professionals reported some, albeit limited, utilization as part of their practice. These findings suggest that iPad applications are not being used by professionals to a degree that is consistent with their favorable attitudes toward them. iPad use has been enthusiastically adopted by many parents; however, there appears a need for training in their use and research to establish an evidence base.

Parents of children with autism spectrum disorder appear to experience high levels of psychological distress, yet little is known about the prevalence of psychological disorders in this population. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to estimate the proportion of these parents who experience clinically significant psychopathology. Articles reporting proportions of psychological disorders in a sample of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder were located. The initial search returned 25,988 articles. Thirty-one studies with a total sample of 9208 parents were included in the final review. The median meta-analytic proportions were 31% (95% confidence interval = [24%, 38%]) for depressive disorders, 33% (95% confidence interval = [20%, 48%]) for anxiety disorders, 10% (95% confidence interval = [1%, 41%]) for obsessive-compulsive disorder, 4% (95% confidence interval = [0%, 22%]) for personality disorders, 2% (95% confidence interval = [1%, 4%]) for alcohol and substance use disorders and 1% (95% confidence interval = [0%, 5%]) for schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Significant heterogeneity was detected in these categories. Further research is needed to gain more insight into variables that may moderate parental psychopathology. This review and meta-analysis is the first to provide prevalence estimates of psychological disorders in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundAlthough parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) exhibit high levels of parenting stress, minimal research has examined the type of stress they experience. Understanding parenting stress is critical as the effects are not limited to the parent. The aim of this study was to investigate the validity of conceptualising parenting stress within a traumatic stress framework. MethodTwelve mothers participated in focus groups, which were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used, then researchers examined for spontaneous reporting ofDSM-5-defined traumatic stressors and trauma symptomatology. ResultsForty percent of mothers experienced traumatic stressors and trauma-related symptomatology. Sixty percent of mothers did not report traumatic stressors but reported trauma-related symptomatology regardless. ConclusionsThe use of a traumatic stress framework to conceptualise some parenting experiences was supported. This finding has important implications for the development of interventions to prevent or reduce stress. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The impact on parental psychological functioning as a result of living with disruptive, challenging, and dangerous behaviours exhibited by some children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is investigated. Core features of ASD along with aggression, elopement, self-injury, and suicidal ideation can cause significant parental distress. This parenting experience may be associated with depression, anxiety, somatisation, and anger-hostility. It is proposed that a traumatic stress framework may assist in conceptualising some parents’ experiences and psychological symptomatology. A systematic review revealed only one study that had explored posttraumatic stress symptoms amongst parents of children with ASD. Consequently, a narrative literature review has been conducted to explore this emerging area of enquiry. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (fifth edition) recognises direct experience as well as witnessing actual or threatened serious injury as a traumatic event that can lead to trauma-related psychopathology. Despite some parents of children with ASD experiencing traumatic events (e.g. their child engaging in self-injurious behaviours), prevalence rates of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder amongst this population are unknown. Further research is required to determine the validity of adopting a traumatic stress framework when considering parent symptomatology, and if such a framework were valid, there would be significant implications for optimising support and intervention for parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mercury (Hg) exposure is ubiquitous in modern society via vaccines, fish/crustacea, dental amalgam, food, water, and the atmosphere. This article examines Hg exposure in the context of primary exposure to pregnant women and secondary exposure experienced by their unborn babies. Babies in utero are particularly at risk of higher Hg exposure than adults (on a dose/weight basis through maternal Hg transfer via the placenta), and are more susceptible to adverse effects from mercury and its biologically active compounds. It is, therefore, critical that regulatory advisories around maximum safe Hg exposures account for pregnant women and secondary exposure that children in utero experience. This study focused on standardized embryonic and fetal Hg exposures via primary exposure to the pregnant mother of two common Hg sources (dietary fish and parenteral vaccines). Data demonstrated that Hg exposures, particularly during the first trimester of pregnancy, at well-established dose/weight ratios produced severe damage to humans including death. In light of research suggestive of a mercuric risk factor for childhood conditions such as tic disorders, cerebral palsy, and autism, it is essential that Hg advisories account for secondary prenatal human exposures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autism is defined by a behavioral set of stereotypic and repetitious behavioral patterns in combination with social and communication deficits. There is emerging evidence supporting the hypothesis that autism may result from a combination of genetic susceptibility and exposure to environmental toxins at critical moments in development. Mercury (Hg) is recognized as a ubiquitous environmental neurotoxin and there is mounting evidence linking it to neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism. Of course, the evidence is not derived from experimental trials with humans but rather from methods focusing on biomarkers of Hg damage, measurements of Hg exposure, epidemiological data, and animal studies. For ethical reasons, controlled Hg exposure in humans will never be conducted. Therefore, to properly evaluate the Hg-autism etiological hypothesis, it is essential to first establish the biological plausibility of the hypothesis. This review examines the plausibility of Hg as the primary etiological agent driving the cellular mechanisms by which Hg-induced neurotoxicity may result in the physiological attributes of autism. Key areas of focus include: (1) route and cellular mechanisms of Hg exposure in autism; (2) current research and examples of possible genetic variables that are linked to both Hg sensitivity and autism; (3) the role Hg may play as an environmental toxin fueling the oxidative stress found in autism; (4) role of mitochondrial dysfunction; and (5) possible role of Hg in abnormal neuroexcitory and excitotoxity that may play a role in the immune dysregulation found in autism. Future research directions that would assist in addressing the gaps in our knowledge are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Dysregulated phospholipid metabolism has been proposed as an underlying biological component of neurodevelopmental disorders such as autistic disorder (AD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This review provides an overview of fatty acid and phospholipid metabolism and evidence for phospholipid dysregulation with reference to the membrane hypothesis of schizophrenia. While there is evidence that phospholipid metabolism is at least impaired in individuals with AD, it has not been established whether phospholipid metabolism is implicated in causal, mechanistic or epiphenomenological models. More research is needed to ascertain whether breastfeeding, and specifically, the administration of colostrum or an adequate substitute can play a preventative role by supplying the neonate with essential fatty acids (EFAs) at a critical juncture in their development. Regarding treatment, further clinical trials of EFA supplementation are essential to determine the efficacy of EFAs in reducing AD symptomatology and whether supplementation can serve as a cost-effective and readily available intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the publication of Leo Kanner’s seminal paper in 1943, there has been essentially no definitive light shed on the cause, prevention or cure of autism. It is our contention that the reason lies, at least in part, with the original psychiatric conceptualization of the condition and the subsequent acceptance of this framework by health professionals ever since. We suggest an urgent revision of autism as a disease state such that its operationalization in major diagnostic systems such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and International Classification of Diseases recognizes the biological variables known to be associated with autism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fatty acid deficiencies are linked to Autism Spectrum Disorder. This commentary discusses the protective role of breastfeeding and the urgency of research into the human infant's intake of colostrum to prevent fatty acid deficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Where direct experimental research into a causal hypothesis of a disease is impossible due to ethical and practical considerations, epidemiological inference is the accepted route to establishing cause. Therefore, to examine the autism as mercury poisoning hypothesis, this paper reviews the existing scientific literature within the context of established epidemiological criteria and finds that the evidence for a causal relationship is compelling. Exposure to mercury (via vaccines and maternal dental amalgam) in utero and during infant years is confirmed; mercury poisoning is known to cause symptoms consistent with autism; animal modeling supports the link and, critically, mercury levels are higher in both the urine and blood of autistic children than in non-autistic peers. Analogous to epidemiological evidence of the smoking–lung cancer relationship, a mercury–autism relationship is confirmed. The precautionary principle demands that health professionals not take an action if there is suspicion that the action may cause severe or lifelong health effects: it does not require certainty. Therefore, given the severity, devastating lifelong impact and extremely high prevalence of autism, it would be negligent to continue to expose pregnant and nursing mothers and infant children to any amount of avoidable mercury. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of a ‘virtual reality’ hypnotherapeutic procedure was trialled for feasibility as a possible treatment modality for autism (4 sessions over 2 weeks) with 2 boys aged 14 and 15 years old. The aim of the study was to determine if the procedure would be acceptable to autistic patients and thus have some potential as an intervention for reducing anxieties and/or alleviating symptoms associated with autism. Results indicated that the procedure had no effect on autistic symptoms, however, the parents of both boys reported that their son enjoyed the sessions, was attentive and relaxed throughout and that they would pursue this procedure if it were available. Furthermore, they indicated that they believed it was an effective technique to gain their son's attention, and this, combined with the fact that the boys found it enjoyable and engaging, led them to believe there is significant potential for this particular treatment modality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Parents of children with autism spectrum disorder and parents of children with a rare disease endorse symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. • Both groups report significantly greater PTSD symptoms than parents of typically developing children. • Challenging behaviours such as physical aggression and self-harm positively predict symptoms of PTSD for parents of children with ASD. • 18.6% of the sample of parents of children with ASD met criteria for a provisional diagnosis of PTSD. • Health professionals should screen parents for PTSD when potentially traumatic challenging behaviours are present in children with ASD. This study investigated the validity of conceptualising elevated stress in parents of children who exhibit challenging behaviour within the framework of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). It was hypothesised that parents of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and parents of children with a rare disease would endorse greater PTSD symptomatology than parents of typically developing (TD) children, and that challenging child behaviours would positively predict PTSD symptomatology. The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5, Developmental Behaviour Checklist (Parent) and PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 were administered to 395 parents. Significantly more PTSD symptomatology was reported by parents of children with ASD and parents of children with a rare disease than parents of TD children, and challenging child behaviours positively predicted PTSD symptomatology in both groups. A PTSD framework may validly explain elevated stress among some parents of children with ASD and parents of children with a rare disease, and has important implications for support delivered to parents by healthcare providers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on the different theories about the cause of autism. He argues that the current lack of understanding on the real cause of autism suggests that one has no position to be closed-minded about the childhood disorder. In addition, the author states that any significant way in addressing issues of cause, recovery and prevention of autism is absolutely essential.