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Most countries around the world use the penalties' system in order to increase compliance with road traffic rules. However, it can be argued that the most penalties' systems are ineffective, as drivers do not change offending behavior due to received penalty and repeatedly violate them. The perceived fairness of these penalties may be related to the level of adherence to these traffic rules. Therefore, this research explored the perceived justice of penalties for road traffic rules in a sample of Lithuanian drivers and investigated the differences between offenders and non-offenders. The sample consisted of 358 participants (63.4 percent females, aged 18-75, mean age 35.2 years) who completed an online survey. Participants were asked to report how fair they believed penalties were for road traffic rule offences in general and using a list of 23 specific penalties, including: drink driving, speeding, dangerous maneuverings, illegal overtaking, handheld phone use while driving, etc. The survey measured demographic data, as well as data regarding driving exposure, traffic offences and crashes during the last 12 months. The results revealed that in general drivers perceived the penalties as fair or adequate. The answer "adequate/fair" was chosen most frequently for almost all penalties (from 41.1 to 71.3 percent), with only the penalty for carrying a child without a car seat (€30-50) being perceived as too mild (55.5%). Gender differences were found in the evaluation of the penalty for driving under the influence of alcohol, while age and driving frequency differences were found in the perceived fairness of the penalties for not using a seatbelt, aberrant driving and using a handheld mobile phone while driving. Drivers who reported no offences during the last year, perceived the penalties for speeding as being too mild, when compared to drivers with at least one penalty over the previous year. Contrarily, offenders reported the penalties for speeding as being too severe. Offenders, who experienced driving license suspension, perceived the penalties as being too severe for drink driving and aberrant driving than offenders who received monetary fines. In summary, both Lithuanian offenders and non-offenders generally perceived the penalties for traffic rule offences as adequate and fair, but individual differences and the experience of traffic sanctions were related to the perceived justice of specific penalties., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

There is clear research evidence that using a mobile phone while driving is dangerous. However, although drivers generally know this is a risky behaviour, many continue to use a handheld mobile phone while driving. The present research used the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to explore the psychological reasons underpinning intentions to use a mobile phone while driving in general, as well as to send and read text messages while driving across four different scenarios. Convenience sampling was used to obtain data from 314 participants who held a valid licence to drive in the UK, had driven at least once in the last six months and owned a mobile phone. General intentions to use a mobile phone while driving were predicted by positive Attitudes towards the behaviour and higher Perceived Behavioural Control. Moreover, when predicting intentions to send and read text messages, it was positive Attitudes that was the most consistent and significant predictor. Surprisingly, neither Perceived Behavioural Control nor Subjective Norms were significant predictors of intentions to send or read text messages. Furthermore, perceptions of risk (crashing and being apprehended by the police) were significant predictors of intentions to send and read texts over and above that provided by the TPB variables. The present research highlights the need for interventions to target attitudinal change and to increase risk perceptions in order to reduce the prevalence of these risky behaviours., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Despite the fact that mobile phones have been transformed over the last decade into information and communication hubs that are fundamental to modern life, there is little information on how this has impacted on mobile phone use while driving. The present study was conducted in Ukraine, where this risky behaviour remains a common driving practice, despite legislative bans. A total of 220 (male = 82%; mean age = 35.53; SD = 10.54) drivers completed an online survey assessing frequency of engaging in a range of mobile phone applications while driving. Four variables of the theory of planned behaviour (general attitude and intention towards phone use while driving, social norms towards mobile phone use, perceived behavioural control, the specific beliefs about being able to engage in distracting activities and drive safely), and type A behaviour pattern were also collected. The results showed that, during the last year, 65% of drivers had read a text message and 49% had written a text using mobile phone applications. Likewise, a substantial proportion of the sample reported using social media while driving, by checking (34%), sending or typing a post (25%) on social network applications. Hierarchical stepwise regressions showed that a positive attitude towards mobile phone use while driving and beliefs about being able to drive safely and write or read a text message were significantly associated with the mobile phone applications use while driving. No associations were found between the type A behaviour pattern and mobile phone applications use., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Objective: This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to determine the effectiveness of mass media campaigns for increasing the use of seat belts among drivers and front seat passengers., Methods: We systematically searched the PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science (WOS), and Scopus databases from November 1974 until June 2020 to identify before-after studies investigating the effect of mass media campaigns on seat belt use. The quality of all included studies was assessed using the National Institute of Health (NIH) tool. Chi-Squared tests and the I 2 statistic were used to evaluate inter-study heterogeneity, while the odds ratio (OR) was used as a measure of effect size., Results: Of the 793 records initially identified, twenty articles were found to be appropriate for the current meta-analysis. Of these, 13, 5, and 2 studies were rated as good, fair, and poor quality, respectively. The meta-analysis finding using random effects model showed that mass media campaigns resulted in statistically significant increases in seat belt usage among drivers (OR= 1.40, 95% CI: 1.18- 1.68) and front seat passengers (OR= 1.54, 95% CI: 1.31- 1.82). Due to the presence of heterogeneity (I 2 : 99.7% for drivers; I 2 : 99.1% for front passengers), additional analyses were also undertaken. Sensitivity analyses showed that the pooled ORs remained consistent after removing each study one by one. Statistically significant increases in seat belt use among drivers were found in mass media campaigns which: had measurement periods longer than 12 months, were used in combination with enforcement activities, were published after 2000, and had good quality scores., Conclusion: The current meta-analysis found that mass media campaigns can lead to an increase in seat belt use among drivers and front passengers. However, these results should be interpreted with some degree of caution, due to the high degree of heterogeneity between studies and the fact that most of the studies were from high-income countries without control groups. Despite the apparent favorable impact of mass media campaigns, more robust long term studies are needed.

Background: A systematic review and meta-analysis was performed to determine the relationships risky driving behaviors (RDBs) have with the big five personality factors, sensation seeking and driving anger., Methods: The PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, Scopus, Psychinfo, and the Cochrane Library databases were systematically searched. All original studies were retrieved that assessed the relationships RDBs had with the big five personality factors, sensation seeking, and driving anger. Heterogeneity between studies was examined using the Cochran Q statistic and I2 tests. After applying Fisher's r-to-z transformation, the correlation coefficients (r) were summarized from each study and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were estimated., Results: Overall, 22 studies were included in the meta-analysis, which included 11211 participants. The results showed that RDBs had a significant negative relationship with agreeableness (r -0.27; 95% CI, -0.36, -0.19; P less than 0.0001), but significant positive relationships with neuroticism (r 0.16; 95% CI, 0.03, 0.29; P=0.584), sensation seeking (r 0.28; 95% CI: 0.23, 0.33; P less than 0.0001) and driving anger (r 0.39; 95% CI: 0.14, 0.64; P=0.002). Conversely, RDBs were not significantly related to extraversion (r -0.01; 95% CI, -0.08, 0.05; P=0.705), conscientiousness (r -0.05; 95% CI, -0.21, 0.12; P=0.584), or openness (r -0.06; 95% CI, -0.12, 0.00; P=0.065)., Conclusions: Therefore, it appears that individuals most likely to engage in risky driving behaviors would be low in agreeableness, but high in neuroticism, sensation seeking and driving anger.

An extensive body of research has found that angry and aggressive driving are both significantly related to crash involvement. There has also been a large body of research investigating the situational factors related to angry and aggressive driving, but one interesting question that has not yet been answered is whether the enforcement of traffic laws causes or reduces angry and aggressive driving. The independent region of Northern Kosovo represents a unique opportunity to investigate the impact of a lack of traffic enforcement on driving behaviour. Therefore, the present study set out to investigate whether the presence of traffic enforcement has a significant impact on the level of driver anger and aggressive driving. Registered owners of motor vehicles in Northern Kosovo and Serbia were both sent a questionnaire which contained the 28-item Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) and the 21-item UK Driving Anger Scale (UKDAS). This found that anger was higher in two of the four driving anger factors (direct hostility and progress impeded) and two of the three DDDI factors (risky driving & aggressive driving). Furthermore, the present study found that the lack of police enforcement was a significant predictor of both aggressive and risky driving, even after the driving anger and demographic variables had been partialled out. Therefore, it appears that introducing or increasing traffic enforcement may be one method of reducing aggressive and risky driving behaviour., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Although at present legislation does not allow drivers in a Level 3 autonomous vehicle to engage in a secondary task, there may become a time when it does. Monitoring the behaviour of drivers engaging in various non-driving activities (NDAs) is crucial to decide how well the driver will be able to take over control of the vehicle. One limitation of the commonly used face-based head tracking system, using cameras, is that sufficient features of the face must be visible, which limits the detectable angle of head movement and thereby measurable NDAs, unless multiple cameras are used. This paper proposes a novel orientation sensor based head tracking system that includes twin devices, one of which measures the movement of the vehicle while the other measures the absolute movement of the head. Measurement error in the shaking and nodding axes were less than 0.4°, while error in the rolling axis was less than 2°. Comparison with a camera-based system, through in-house tests and on-road tests, showed that the main advantage of the proposed system is the ability to detect angles larger than 20° in the shaking and nodding axes. Finally, a case study demonstrated that the measurement of the shaking and nodding angles, produced from the proposed system, can effectively characterise the drivers' behaviour while engaged in the NDAs of chatting to a passenger and playing on a smartphone., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Background: Risky driving is a common cause of traffic accidents and injuries. However, there is no clear evidence of how difficulties in emotion regulation contribute to risky driving behavior, particularly in small post-Soviet countries. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between difficulties in emotion regulation and self-reported risky driving behavior in a sample of Lithuanian drivers., Methods: A total of 246 nonprofessional Lithuanian drivers participated in a cross-sectional survey. Difficulties in emotion regulation were assessed using the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS; Gratz and Roemer 2004), and risky driving behavior was assessed using the Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ; Lajunen et al. 2004)., Results: Males scored higher than females in aggressive violations and ordinary violations. Females scored higher for the nonacceptance of emotional responses, whereas males had more difficulties with emotional awareness than females. More difficulties in emotion regulation were positively correlated with driving errors, lapses, aggressive violations, and ordinary violations for both males and females. Structural equation modeling showed that difficulties in emotion regulation explained aggressive and ordinary violations more clearly than lapses and errors. When controlling for interactions among the distinct regulation difficulties, difficulties with impulse control and difficulties engaging in goal-directed behavior predicted risky driving. Furthermore, nonacceptance of emotional responses and limited access to emotion regulation strategies were related to less violations and more driving errors., Conclusion: Emotion regulation difficulties were associated with the self-reported risky driving behaviors of Lithuanian drivers. This provides useful hints for improving driver training programs in order to prevent traffic injuries.

In Iran the prevalence of traffic injuries and death from vehicle collisions are high. Driver engagement in non-driving-related tasks has been previously identified as an important contributing factor to crashes. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to investigate the prevalence of drivers' engagement in potentially distracting activities in Kashmar, Khalilabad and Bardaskan, which are three Iranian International Safe Communities. Observations took place at 12 randomly selected roadside locations in each city, which were comprised of six main streets and six side streets. In total 7979 drivers were observed. The prevalence rates of potentially distracting activities in Kashmar, Khalilabad and Bardaskan were 24.3%, 26% and 24.9%, respectively. In both Kashmar and Khalilabad the most frequently observed secondary tasks were drivers talking to passengers (10.6% and 11.5%, respectively) followed by mobile phone use (3.4% and 4.0%, respectively). Although in Bardaskan the most commonly observed secondary task was also talking to passengers (12.7%), the second most common was reaching for an object (3.2%). In all three cities younger drivers were significantly more likely to be observed engaged in a secondary task while driving. Furthermore, involvement in secondary tasks while driving was significantly higher amongst females and those driving on a working day. The percentage of drivers identified as potentially distracted in these three Safe Communities was worryingly high. Thus, interventions should be integrated into the WHO Safe Community network in these cities, including: education regarding the risks associated with engaging in secondary activities while driving, law enforcement, tougher legislation, periodic assessment, raising public awareness, as well as attracting political and social support., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: The number of road traffic injuries and fatalities in Iran is high. The aim of the present study was to investigate the rate of drivers' seat belt use and a number of related factors in Kashmar, Bardaskan, and Khalilabad (Iranian Safe Communities)., Methods: In 2014, driver observations were made at 48 road sites on intercity roads, main streets, side streets, and rural roads in these 3 cities., Results: A total of 10,255 vehicles were observed, with the overall rate of seat belt use being 51.8%. The rates in Kashmar, Bardaskan, and Khalilabad were 51.4, 56.3, and 47.7%, respectively. In Kashmar, the odds of seat belt use were higher among drivers who were female, older, and taxi drivers. Higher use was also found during the afternoon, and lower use was observed on rural roads. In Khalilabad the odds of seat belt use were higher among females, older drivers, taxis, and private car drivers. Seat belt use was also higher on weekends and during the morning but was significantly lower on rural roads. Similarly, in Bardaskan the odds of using a seat belt were higher among females, older drivers, taxis, and private car drivers. Seat belt use was also higher during the afternoon but was significantly lower on rural roads, in comparison to main streets and intercity roads., Conclusions: The rate of seat belt use in these 3 cities was found to be low, despite these cities being designated as International Safe Communities. Therefore, seat belt promotion programs, tougher regulations, stronger enforcement, public awareness campaigns, and more research are needed to promote seat belt use in these Iranian cities.

Aggressive driving is acknowledged as a contributor to motor vehicle crashes. This study explored a theoretical model of aggressive expression and crash-related outcomes using self-report data collected, using an online questionnaire, from drivers in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. The proposed model tested whether the personality traits of boredom proneness, sensation seeking, and impulsivity, coupled with trait driving anger, predicted aggressive driving; and whether aggressive driving predicted crash-related outcomes (loss of concentration and control, near misses, and moving violations). The structural model was confirmed, with aggressive expressions of anger being found to mediate the relationships driving anger and impulsivity had with the crash-related outcomes. Multigroup invariance analysis showed that the model remained invariant across drivers from the United Kingdom and Ireland, suggesting that the contributing factors for aggressive expression and crash involvement are similar across both countries. When self-reported crash-related conditions were compared between drivers in the United Kingdom and Ireland, drivers in the United Kingdom reported more aggressive driving, more minor crashes, more incidents of road rage, and more frequent losses of concentration and vehicle control., (© 2015 Society for Risk Analysis.)

The present study developed a Persian version of the Adolescent Road User Behaviour Questionnaire (ARBQ) and investigated the psychometric properties of the scale in a sample of school students in the province of Tehran (Iran). In total 1111 adolescents completed the Persian version of the ARBQ. Exploratory factor analysis, using the shortened 21-item version of the scale revealed the presence of three reliable factors which were also supported using confirmatory factor analysis. According to this research, engagement in dangerous playing in the road was significantly higher among males, residents of large urban areas, students from private schools, students in the south of Tehran, those who reported relatives or friends had been killed in a road crash and those with a personal history of road accidents. Moreover, older adolescents, those who reported relatives or friends having been killed in a road crash and those with a traffic accident history reported higher involvement in unsafe crossing behaviour. Females, older adolescents, residents of small urban areas, students from schools in small urban areas and those with an accident history also reported less frequent engagement in planned protective behaviours. This study confirms that the ARBQ is a useful framework for investigating adolescents' on-road behaviours in Iran. This research also showed that adolescents put themselves at risk by engaging in hazardous behaviours. As is the case in most countries, this study revealed the need for interventions, such as education and enforcement to improve the on-road safety culture amongst Iranian adolescents., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: This study investigated the prevalence of observable distractions while driving and the effect of drivers' characteristics and time-related variables on their prevalence., Methods: Using roadside observation, 2 independent observers collected data at 4 randomly selected locations in St. Albans, UK., Results: Of the 10,984 drivers observed, 16.8% were engaged in a secondary task, with talking to passengers being the most common distraction (8.8%), followed by smoking (1.9%) and talking on a hands-free mobile phone (1.7%). An additional 1.0% were observed talking on a handheld phone, and the rest of the distractions (e.g., texting, drinking) were recorded in less than 1% of the drivers observed. Gender-related differences were found for a number of different distractions (i.e., talking to passengers, drinking, and handheld mobile phone conversations), but age emerged as a significant predictor for most secondary tasks, including talking to passengers, smoking, hands-free mobile phone use, handheld mobile phone use, texting/keying numbers, drinking, and engagement in any type of distraction (all distractions combined). The overall pattern for age was that middle-aged and older drivers were less likely to be distracted than younger drivers., Conclusions: This work provides further evidence of the relatively high rate of distracted driving in the UK. The findings clearly indicate that younger drivers are more likely to drive distracted, which probably contributes to their higher crash rates.

The present study developed a revised version of the driving anger expression inventory (25-items) and a short (15-item) version using data from 551 drivers. Split half factor analyses on both versions confirmed the original four factors; personal physical aggressive expression, use of a vehicle to express anger, verbal aggressive expression and adaptive/constructive expression. The two DAX versions were strongly correlated, demonstrating the suitability of both forms of the scale and the aggressive forms of expression were higher for drivers who reported initiating road rage interactions. Total aggressive expression was also higher for drivers who reported recent crash-related conditions, such as: loss of concentration, losing control of their vehicle, moving violations, near-misses and major crashes. The revised DAX and DAX-short provide shorter versions of the 49-item DAX that can more easily be combined with other questionnaires and require smaller sample sizes to analyse. Further research is required to validate these tools among different samples and populations., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The present study examined the types of situations that cause Malaysian drivers to become angry. The 33-item version of the driver anger scale (Deffenbacher et al., 1994) was used to investigate driver anger amongst a sample of 339 drivers. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the fit of the original six-factor model (discourtesy, traffic obstructions, hostile gestures, slow driving, illegal driving and police presence), after removing one item and allowing three error pairs to covary, was satisfactory. Female drivers reported more anger, than males, caused by traffic obstruction and hostile gestures. Age was also negatively related to five (discourtesy, traffic obstructions, hostile gestures, slow driving and police presence) of the six factors and also to the total DAS score. Furthermore, although they were not directly related to crash involvement, several of the six forms of driving anger were significantly related to the crash-related conditions of: near misses, loss of concentration, having lost control of a vehicle and being ticketed. Overall the pattern of findings made in the present research were broadly similar to those from Western countries, indicating that the DAS is a valid measure of driving anger even among non-European based cultures., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The present study investigated the factor structures of the 14-item version of the DAS (Driving Anger Scale) and the Propensity for Angry Driving Scale (PADS) using a sample of New Zealand drivers drawn from the general population. The two scales were also investigated with regards to their relationships with general trait anger, risky driving behaviour, along with crash involvement and a variety of crash-related conditions. Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported both scales as unidimensional, although the PADS was reduced from a 19-item to an 18-item scale. Both the PADS and DAS were significantly related to trait anger, risky driving behaviour and near-misses. However, once the influence of the demographic variables and trait anger had been partialled out, the addition of the PADS and DAS made a significant contribution to predicting violations, but it was only the PADS which was significant. In contrast, after the demographic variables and trait anger had been partialled out, the addition of the DAS and PADS again made a significant contribution to the prediction of near-misses, but this time it was only the DAS which made a significant contribution. The present study clearly shows that both scales are robust measures, measuring similar, but slightly different aspects of driving anger., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The present study tested the four factor structure of the DAX on a sample of Turkish taxi drivers and the relationship these factors had with a number of other variables. Confirmatory Factor Analysis found that the data broadly fit the four factor solution of the DAX. These factors included three aggressive expressions: Verbal Aggressive Expression; Personal Physical Aggressive Expression; Use of a Vehicle to Express anger, and one Adaptive/Constructive factor. Driving experience was negatively related to the three types of aggressive expression. The Total Aggressive Expression was positively related to annual mileage and preferred driving speed, but negatively related to age and experience. The present research also found that the three aggressive types of anger expression were significantly related to potentially crash related conditions, such as losing control of the vehicle, loss of concentration and near-misses. However, none of the DAX factors was significantly related to either minor or major crashes., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Aim: The aim of this study was to identify demographic and behavioural factors associated with pre-licensed driving., Method: A cohort comprising 3526 newly licensed drivers aged 15-24 years old from throughout New Zealand completed a questionnaire which sought information on pre-licensed driving behaviour and factors thought to be related to this., Results: Almost half of the participants had driven on-road prior to passing their learner license theory test; 14% had driven more than 20 times; and 7.5% had driven more than 200 km. Multivariate logistic regression showed the results differed depending on the outcome examined. In general pre-licensed driving was significantly higher among males, among Māori, those living in a rural area, and those living in an area of high deprivation. Furthermore, those who drove pre-licensed were more likely to engage in other risky behaviours such as hazardous drinking and cannabis use, and have medium to high scores for sensation seeking and aggression/hostility., Conclusion: The young people who were pre-licensed drivers displayed a range of demographic and behavioural characteristics that indicate they may be at higher crash risk than their peers who did not drive before licensing. Identifying those who drive before licensing and targeting road safety interventions towards this group may help reduce the high crash risk among novice drivers., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Driving anxiety can have a significant impact on everyday functioning and usually results in some kind of avoidance behaviour. The Driving and Riding Avoidance Scale (DRAS; Stewart, A. E., & St. Peter, C. C. (2004). Driving and riding avoidance following motor vehicle crashes in a non-clinical sample: psychometric properties of a new measure. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 859-879) shows promise in the self-report assessment of the degree of such avoidance. The present study investigated the psychometric properties of the DRAS in a sample of 301 university students. Internal consistency for the DRAS was 0.89 and temporal stability over two months was 0.71. The factor structure of the DRAS supported the use of the general and traffic avoidance subscales but not the weather and riding avoidance subscales in the present non-clinical sample. However, a significant limitation of the DRAS is that it does not assess the reasons for driving avoidance, and is therefore not a measure of avoidance that is due to driving anxiety. Some items may be rated highly for practical reasons, such as avoidance because of increasing fuel and other costs associated with driving. Modified instructions for the DRAS should ensure that it measures anxiety-related avoidance behaviour.

A number of epidemiological studies have reported drivers who use a mobile phone while driving have an elevated risk of being involved in a crash. This is particularly concerning as a survey of drivers in the Spanish region of Catalunya found that approximately 87% own mobile phones. The present study investigated the reported frequency of mobile phone use on Spanish roads (for talking and using SMS), the characteristics of the drivers who use mobile phones while driving and whether they altered their driving behaviour when using a mobile phone. The research found that more than 60% use a mobile phone while driving and that the phone is mostly used for making calls, rather than using SMS. In general, males and females use mobile phones about the same reported frequency, although males were more likely to use a mobile phone to talk on the highway. The pattern for age was the same for both male and female participants, with the younger drivers using SMS more frequently than older drivers. On urban roads almost half of the drivers reported changing their driving behaviour when using a mobile phone, while on the highway this figure was slightly over 41%. The reported frequency of using a mobile phone to talk on urban roads was significantly correlated with crash involvement. However, this affect disappeared once the contributions of the demographic and descriptive variables had been partialled out.

A variation of the ABAB experimental design was used to assess the impact of a verbal prompt on safety-belt use for those traveling by urban roads and highways in Spain. The personal prompt resulted in an increase (29.6%) in safety-belt use among drivers traveling on urban roads. This research shows that the impact of personal prompts can be generalized to cultures outside the United States.

Background: There is a vast amount of literature on the effects of driver education. However, the evidence has become somewhat fragmented, making it challenging to understand driver education's effectiveness for improving road safety. The current study aimed to provide the efficacy of pre-LDE and post-LDE interventions aimed at improving the safety of drivers (includes crashes, injuries, or secondary outcomes). Methods: The following online databases were searched up to the 21st of February 2020: Web of Science (WOS), Scopus, PubMed, Cochrane library, and other relevant databases. Systematic reviews (SR) and meta-analyses were selected to investigate the efficacy of driving education in reducing crashes, injuries, or secondary outcomes. Two investigators independently conducted the data extraction and used the assessment of multiple systematic reviews (AMSTAR) tool to conduct a quality assessment of each SR identified. Results: Out of the 229 potential articles, seven SRs were eligible for the current overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. This overview showed that pre-and post-license education by people of all ages led to improvements in secondary outcomes, such as performance, self-perceived driving abilities, behind-the-wheel driving performance, and even a small decrease in traffic offenses. However, education was not effective in reducing crashes or injuries, either at the individual or community level. Conclusion: There was no evidence that driver education is an effective approach to reducing crashes or injuries. This negative result might be due to ineffective teaching methods. To improve road safety, it appears necessary to change the method or content of driving education since the current approaches to driving education do not reduce traffic crashes or injuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Although it is currently legal in Poland to use a hands-free mobile phone while driving, research suggests that it is not significantly safer than using a hand-held mobile phone. The present study used the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to examine the relationships that three types of beliefs (behavioural, normative and control beliefs) have with the frequency of drivers' hands-free and hand-held mobile phone use. Subjects and methods: The sample comprised 298 Polish drivers (35% females) aged between 18 and 40 years old (mean age: 21.05 years, standard deviation = 2.38). Results: Two multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) were conducted to investigate the differences between the two groups (hand-held and hands-free) of frequent and infrequent mobile phone users, with regard to their behavioural, normative and control beliefs. Significant differences were found in all of the control beliefs for both hand-held and hands-free mobile phone users. Similar normative differences were identified for both hands-free and hand-held mobile phone use, but while three behavioural beliefs differed significantly for hands-free use, no behavioural beliefs were significant for hand-held mobile phone use. Finally, composite measures of the behavioural and control beliefs were predictive of being a frequent hand-held mobile phone user, but none of the three beliefs were predictive of being a frequent hands-free user. Conclusions: These results demonstrate potential directions for behavioural change aimed at reducing or preventing the use of mobile phones while driving. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The drive to reduce fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions is one shared by both businesses and governments. Although many businesses in the European Union undertake interventions, such as driver training, there is relatively little research which has tested the efficacy of this approach and that which does exist has methodological limitations. One emerging technology employed to deliver eco-driving training is driver training using a simulator. The present study investigated whether bus drivers trained in eco-driving techniques were able to implement this learning in a simulator and whether this training would also transfer into the workplace. A total of 29 bus drivers attended an all-day eco-driving course and their driving was tested using a simulator both before and after the course. A further 18 bus drivers comprised the control group, and they attended first aid courses as well as completing the same simulator drives (before-after training). The bus drivers who were given the eco-driving training significantly improved fuel economy figures in the simulator, while there was no change in fuel economy for the control group. Actual fuel economy figures were also provided by the bus companies immediately before the training, immediately after the training and six months after the training. As expected there were no significant changes in fuel economy for the control group. However, fuel economy for the treatment group improved significantly immediately after the eco-driving training (11.6%) and this improvement was even larger six months after the training (16.9%). This study shows that simulator-based training in eco-driving techniques has the potential to significantly reduce fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in the road transport sector. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This research investigated the types of situations that cause drivers to become angry while driving. The Driver Anger Scale [Deffenbacher, J. L., Oetting, E. R., & Lynch, R. S. (1994). Development of a driver anger scale. Psychological Reports, 74, 83–91] was used to investigate driver anger amongst 861 drivers. The resultant data were factor analysed, producing four categories of anger provoking situations; progress impeded, risky driving, hostile gestures and discourteous driving. Overall levels of driver anger were higher than equivalent research in the UK, but appeared to be lower than that found in America. In line with overseas research, female drivers reported more anger overall and in two of the four categories of driver anger (risky driving and hostile gestures). There were also regional differences, with the drivers from the main urban areas reporting more anger than those from the secondary urban areas. Reported anger declined with age for all categories of anger provoking situations. Those drivers reporting a higher level of driving anger across all potential anger inducing situations tended to be; female, younger, from a main urban area, report a higher annual mileage, be less experienced (in terms of years driving) and prefer a higher speed. The overall level of driver anger was not related to crash involvement, and neither were any of the four categories of driver anger. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]