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Background: Past research indicated that scapular malposition is related to the glenohumeral internal rotation deficit (GIRD). However, there is no research examining the effect of throwing-related pain on this relationship. This study investigated the relationship between scapular position and range of motion (ROM) and compared the difference in this relationship between with and without throwing-related pain., Methods: Forty male baseball players in high school were recruited for this study. The existence and degree of throwing-related pain were obtained from a questionnaire. Participants were divided into 2 groups according to the presence or absence of the pain. Glenohumeral internal and external rotation ROM (abduction internal rotation angle and abduction external rotation angle [ABER], respectively) were measured using a digital inclinometer. The pectoralis minor muscle length was measured using a vernier caliper and scapula index, which indicated the scapular position, measured using a measuring tape. All these measurements were taken on both dominant and nondominant sides. The GIRD and total motion arc (TMA) deficit were calculated from the ROM measurements. Groups were compared using a mixed-model analysis of variance., Results: There was a significant interaction between group and ABER dominance. Other variables were not seen as the interaction effect. There was a significant positive correlation between the scapula index and TMA (r = 0.47, P = .02) and a negative correlation between the scapula index and GIRD (r = -0.65, P < .01) in the dominant side of the pain group. In addition, in the nondominant side of the pain group, the scapula index and ABER were significantly correlated (r = 0.43, P = .04)., Conclusions: The results of this study indicate that the scapular position is associated with the glenohumeral ROM in high school baseball players. In addition, this study demonstrated that the scapular internally rotated position was correlated with the GIRD and TMA deficit in high school baseball players who had throwing-related pain. On the other hand, the scapular externally rotated position was correlated with increased ABER, mainly in the pain-free baseball players or on the nondominant side. These results indicated that the scapular position might affect the glenohumeral rotational ROM in high school baseball players., (Copyright © 2022 Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery Board of Trustees. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Glenohumeral internal rotation deficit (GIRD) and total arc of motion difference (TAMD) have been associated with elbow injuries in throwing athletes., Hypothesis: Youth pitchers with elbow pain will have greater GIRD and TAMD compared with youth pitchers without elbow pain., Study Design: Cross-sectional study., Level of Evidence: Level 3., Methods: Glenohumeral range of motion of 25 consecutive throwing athletes presenting with elbow pain and that of a matched control group of 18 asymptomatic throwing athletes were compared. Bilateral glenohumeral internal rotation, external rotation, and horizontal adduction at 90° were measured and GIRD and TAMD were then calculated. An analysis of variance was performed to compare range of motion between throwers with and without elbow pain., Results: The average GIRD of the elbow pain group was 32.7° compared with 14.5° in the control group ( P < 0.05). The average TAMD in the elbow pain group was 28.3° compared with 6.7° in the control group ( P < 0.05). GIRD and TAMD were present in 88% (22 of 25) and 96% (24 of 25) of the elbow pain group versus 33.3% (6 of 18) and 55.6% (10 of 18) of the control group, respectively., Conclusion: Compared with asymptomatic youth pitchers, those presenting with elbow pain have a statistically significant GIRD and TAMD., Clinical Relevance: This study suggests that a GIRD and TAMD may predispose youth pitchers to present with symptomatic elbow pain.

Background: Previous studies have reported that glenohumeral internal rotation deficit (GIRD) may increase the risk of throwing-shoulder injuries. The purpose of this study was to analyze the conditions of the throwing shoulder in professional baseball pitchers with GIRD by comparing with those in pitchers without GIRD., Methods: In total, 26 male professional baseball pitchers participated in this study. We evaluated passive range of motion (ROM) and isometric muscle strength at internal rotation (IR) and external rotation (ER) at 90° of abduction, as well as the muscle thickness of the supraspinatus (SSP) and infraspinatus (ISP) by ultrasound. The pitchers were divided into 2 groups: those who exhibited a loss of IR of ≥20° in the throwing shoulder (GIRD group) and those who did not (non-GIRD group)., Results: In the GIRD group, the total ROM deficit (throwing side - non-throwing side) (P < .001), the muscle thickness ratio (throwing to non-throwing) of the SSP and ISP (P = .017 and P = .014, respectively), and the muscle strength ratio (throwing to non-throwing) of ER (P = .028) were significantly lower than those in the non-GIRD group. In contrast, the muscle strength ratio (throwing to non-throwing) of IR was significantly higher in the GIRD group than in the non-GIRD group (P = .0064)., Conclusions: We have shown that GIRD has significant correlations with several conditions, such as atrophy of the SSP and ISP, weakness of ER strength, enhancement of IR strength, limitation of total ROM, and throwing side, all of which could be important factors for throwing-shoulder injuries., (Copyright © 2020 Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery Board of Trustees. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Limitations of shoulder range of motion (ROM) have been reported to be at high risk for shoulder disorders in baseball players. In this study, we assessed posterior shoulder muscle stiffness using shear wave elastography in baseball players with and without posterior shoulder tightness., Materials and Methods: In total, 21 college baseball players volunteered to participate in this study. Passive ROMs for shoulder abduction and horizontal adduction were measured using a goniometer. Subsequently, we divided all participants into 2 groups based on the differences between bilateral shoulder ROMs: STIFF+ and STIFF- groups. Thickness and elasticity of the posterior and inferior shoulder muscles were assessed using ultrasound., Results: Shoulder abduction ROM on the throwing side was 114.5° ± 5.3° and 131.3° ± 5.7° in the STIFF+ and STIFF- groups, respectively, which was significantly different between the 2 groups (P = .023). Horizontal adduction ROM on the throwing side was 96.6° ± 4.9° and 110.9° ± 4.8° in the STIFF+ and STIFF- groups, respectively, which was also significantly different between the 2 groups (P = .014). The elasticity of infraspinatus and lower trapezius in the STIFF+ group was significantly greater than that in the STIFF- group (P = .018 and .033, respectively)., Discussion: In this study, we found that the elasticity of infraspinatus and lower trapezius in stiff shoulders was significantly greater than that in nonstiff shoulders, which indicated that the infraspinatus and lower trapezius could be the key muscles in posterior shoulder tightness., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

We aimed to investigate the structural neuroplasticity associated with different levels of sports experience and its effect on the corresponding resting-state functional circuitry. We recruited 18 skilled baseball batters (SB), 19 intermediate baseball batters (IB), and 17 healthy controls (HC), and used magnetic resonance imaging methods to compare their regional gray-matter volume (GMV) and seed-based resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC). Our results revealed that a quadratic function could better depict intergroup differences in regional GMV than a linear function. In particular, the IB showed lower or higher regional GMV than the other two groups. The difference in GMV in the supplementary motor area and areas belonging to the ventral stream, including the middle temporal gyrus and middle temporal pole, might be possibly related to baseball-specific motor and perceptual experience, such as inhibitory action control and pitch identification. On the other hand, the stronger rsFC seeded from the right middle temporal pole to the default mode network, particularly in the precuneus, in the SB and IB relative to that in the HC might be possibly associated with the theory of mind, such as deciding whether to swing or not against the pitcher by detecting the spatial information of pitches. In conclusion, our three-group design enabled the capture of the unique and transient changes that occur during the intermediate phase of expertise development. Our findings indicated that structural and functional brain changes do not necessarily linearly increase as a function of experience as previously suggested by the literature., (© 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: The characteristics of scapular muscle activities in elevation and descent exercises have yet to be elucidated to assess scapular dyskinesis. The purpose of this study was to identify the adaptation of electromyograph (EMG) activities of the upper trapezius (UT), lower trapezius (LT), serratus anterior (SA), and anterior deltoid (AD) muscles with different weight loads in flexion (FLX) and abduction (ABD) in collegiate baseball players., Materials and Methods: Twenty eight individuals, including 13 pitchers, were tested. Normalized EMG signals for the UT, LT, SA, AD muscle of the both the dominant (DOM) and nondominant (NON) side were blocked at every 1 second during each of the exercises. A 3-way repeated analysis of variance design was used to identify differences in the mean values between DOM and NON and between FLX and ABD for DOM., Results: The mean EMG value of the UT in the DOM was significantly less than that of the NON for all joint angles (P < .01), whereas the mean EMG value of the LT in the DOM was significantly greater than that of the NON (P < .01). In contrast, no difference in the SA EMG activity was determined between DOM and NON. However, the mean EMG value of SA in FLX was significantly greater than in ABD (P < .01)., Conclusion: This study identified an apparent adaptation of scapular muscle activities in the currently advocated scapular dyskinesis test for healthy active overhead athletes who are vulnerable to shoulder pathologies., (Copyright © 2016 Journal of Shoulder and Elbow Surgery Board of Trustees. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Several studies have reported the clinical outcomes of medial ulnar collateral ligament (MUCL) reconstruction of the elbow joint in throwing athletes, including the rate of return to sports. However, little has been known about the imaging outcomes after MUCL reconstruction. The aim of this study is to report the clinical and imaging outcomes after MUCL reconstruction using figure of eight fashion in the elite and professional baseball players., Methods: This study included 17 baseball players, who underwent MUCL reconstruction between July 2007 and May 2010. The average follow-up period was 48.6 months. Imaging assessment consisted of preoperative plain and stress radiographs, magnetic resonance imaging, and postoperative serial ultrasonography. The clinical assessments were composed of visual analogue scale (VAS) for pain, range of motion, and the Conway scale., Results: The mean VAS score was 6.4 (range, 3 to 8) preoperatively and 2.2 (range, 0 to 4) postoperatively (p < 0.05). There were nine players (53%) classified as excellent who returned to sports at the same or higher level compared to preinjury. Serial ultrasonography revealed well-maintained grafts at 3 and 12 months in all of the players. Five out of 17 players showed decreased echogenecity in the common flexor tendon at 3 months, which was considered as remaining tissue swelling and resolved completely at 12 months., Conclusions: All grafts are well-maintained until 12-months based on the ultrasonographic findings, although only 53% of the players returned to preinjury level.

During the 2022 season, a documentary crew followed the teams and players in the Korean Baseball Organization, resulting in a 10-episode series Full Count that debuted the following year. The series was broadcast initially in South Korea; however, a later international release through a streaming platform allowed for increased worldwide exposure for the league, teams, players, and, perhaps somewhat uniquely, the culture and traditions in the home country. Therefore, even though the focus was baseball, this program provided a unique opportunity for the world to learn about the people and values of South Korea. Using constant comparative methodology, the following themes emerged: (a) emphasizing team over individual, (b) respecting elders, (c) overcoming adversity, and (d) playing with honor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines minor league baseball players' future-oriented labor by interviewing 44 baseball players and collecting data on 8,000 minor league baseball players' careers. Minor league baseball players' expectations of reaching Major League Baseball impacted how they evaluated their work in the present, leading them to tolerate unfair pay and working conditions. We show that players' expectations of reaching Major League Baseball were moderately unrealistic, partly due to managerial practices encouraging unrealistic expectations. This study contributes to labor research by showing that future-oriented labor ideology is based on unrealistic expectations that employers can promote to create opportunities for future status coercion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: This study examined the relationship between ball release points and pitching performance among professional baseball pitchers, with a focus on variability. Methods: We used open-source data to compare ball release point variability between Major League Baseball (MLB) and Minor League Baseball (MiLB) players. The relationship between pitching performance and variability was analyzed using multiple regression analysis. Results: MLB players exhibited smaller ball release point variability compared to MiLB players. The analysis showed that pitching performance was strongly related to ball release point variability, especially in the horizontal direction on the coronal plane. Horizontal ball release point variability was most strongly related to strikeout ability among pitching performances. Discussion: These results suggest that reducing horizontal ball release point variability may improve pitching performance, particularly by increasing strikeouts and reducing home runs allowed. This study provides a data-driven approach to understanding the mechanics of pitching and can be applied to the development of advanced training methods and technical solutions aimed at improving pitching performance in baseball players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The medial ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) of the elbow joint is the primary restraint to valgus stress during the throwing motion. The flexor pronator muscles (FPMs) also stabilize the elbow joint against valgus forces; however, assessment of FPM stiffness in baseball players has been limited. Purpose: To use ultrasound shear wave elastography (USWE) to evaluate the change in tissue elasticity of the FPMs due to pitching. Study Designs: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: Included were 14 healthy male amateur baseball players (mean age, 28.0 ± 2.6 years) who had played intermediate-level high school or college baseball. The tissue elasticity of the flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) in the superficial layer of the FPMs and the flexor digitorum profundus (FDP) in the deep layer of the FPMs were measured using USWE before, immediately after, and 24 hours after a throwing session of 100 pitches. The intra- and interrater reliability of the measurements were evaluated using the Pearson correlation coefficient and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). The elasticity of each muscle was analyzed using repeated-measures analysis of variance followed by post hoc analysis. Results: Reliability of the USWE measurements was good to excellent (intrarater ICCs, 0.78-0.94; interrater ICCs, 0.85-0.96). The mean tissue elasticity values before, immediately after, and 24 hours after pitching were 22.3 ± 4.4, 41.0 ± 13.8, and 38.3 ± 11.2 kPa, respectively, for the FDS and 27.1 ± 5.8, 48.0 ± 22.3, and 29.6 ± 11.5 kPa, respectively, for the FDP. For both the FDS and FDP, elasticity was significantly higher immediately after pitching than before pitching (P <.001 and P =.0027, respectively). While the elasticity of the FDS at 24 hours after pitching remained significantly higher compared with before pitching (P =.0011), the elasticity of the FDP at 24 hours decreased to the same level as before pitching (P =.91). Conclusion: Results using USWE indicated that the elasticity of the FDS did not decrease 24 hours after pitching and remained significantly higher than before pitching, suggesting that it may not be fully functioning as a dynamic stabilizer during this period. Clinical Relevance: Pitching in such a condition may result in greater stress on the UCL and increase the risk of UCL injury. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

American meritocratic ideology positions sports as level playing fields in which individuals, regardless of their background, can ascend with the right combination of ability and effort. Yet few studies challenge the sport-meritocracy ideology by empirically examining the socioeconomic backgrounds of college athletes (Allison et al., 2018). Studies of youth sport participation show that community-level income shapes athletic opportunities suggesting class is a strong barrier to physical activity (NWLC, 2015; Sabo & Veliz, 2008; Tompsett & Knoester, 2022). Class inequalities are exacerbated in sports with robust privatized youth systems like baseball (Klein et al., 2020; Post et al., 2022). Utilizing a unique quantitative dataset of NCAA Division I college baseball players (n = 19,987), we consider the extent to which a community's socioeconomic levels and racial demographics shape the chances of someone becoming a college baseball player. We compare college baseball players' hometown income levels and racial demographics to their home state and to U.S. averages. We also consider differences across competitive divisions (i.e., Non-Power 5 vs. Power 5). Findings show that college baseball players--regardless of conference affiliation--commonly come from affluent, nonminority cities, with high education and income levels, indicating that socioeconomic status is a significant predictor of college athletic participation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article assesses the life and career of George Powles, a legendary White youth sport and high school coach from Oakland, California. Born in 1910, Powles guided local American Legion, Babe Ruth, and Connie Mack baseball teams to various state, regional, and national titles and coached a plethora of outstanding athletes first at McClymonds High School, a predominantly Black institution in West Oakland and then later at Skyline High School, a predominantly White institution at the crest of the Oakland foothills, who would go onto legendary careers in professional sport. Among those he coached were iconic African American athletes who realized lasting fame for both their accomplishments on the playing field and involvement in the larger civil rights movement. Included among these athletes was Bill Russell, the Hall of Fame basketball player who led the University of San Francisco to successive National Collegiate Athletic Association national titles and the Boston Celtics to multiple National Basketball Association championships; Frank Robinson, the Hall of Fame baseball player and first African American to manage a Major League baseball team; Vada Pinson, the outstanding outfielder who played multiple years of Major League baseball; and Curt Flood, the gold-glove winning outfielder who famously challenged baseball's reserve clause. In the end, Powles was a coach who served as an important mentor of Black athletes and believed strongly in sports power to bridge racial differences and instill important values and develop character among youth from all walks of life and cultural and socio-economic backgrounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: While initial reports of surgical repair are promising, literature detailing post-repair outcomes is lacking. This study explores the effectiveness of ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) repair in returning professional baseball players to their pre-injury level of play. Professional baseball players undergoing UCL repair will have successful outcomes and high return to sport rates after surgery. Methods: From 2016 to 2021, publicly available databases were utilized to search for professional baseball players who underwent UCL repair. Players were included if they underwent primary UCL repair with an internal brace. Players were excluded if they underwent revision UCL repair, UCL reconstruction, or were amateur baseball players. Results: Of the 11 pitchers that underwent UCL repair, MiLB pitchers returned to sport at an average of 17.5 months. MiLB pitchers had similar ERA, games played, innings pitched, and walks plus hits per inning pitched (WHIP) before and after surgery. Four MLB pitchers (80%) returned to sport at 9.55 months. MLB pitchers had fewer games played and innings pitched but similar ERA and WHIP in after versus before surgery. Pitch velocity and spin rates after surgery varied based on pitch type. The 7 positional players who underwent UCL repair showed no differences in batting or fielding performances before versus after surgery. Conclusions: UCL repair can successfully return both pitchers and positional players at both the MiLB and MLB level back to play at pre-injury levels. Repair can be considered as an option in the right type of injury for players hoping to maximize performance after surgery with minimal recovery time. Level of evidence: IV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Business intelligence (BI) technologies can help firms optimize revenue and expenses if acquired and deployed proficiently. In parallel, the sport industry's shift toward digitization is being driven by an influx of new, technology-savvy owners and managers. It follows that owners who are business intelligence experts could make their sport organizations more profitable. This paper models 14 years of Major League Baseball data to explore the degree to which owners with business intelligence career experience affect their organization's operating margin through (a) optimizing revenue and (b) enhancing cost efficiency. It further explores owners' knowledge accrual as a moderator in this process. Results suggest the effect of business intelligence expertise on margins is positive, but small. Margin increases were attained by spending more efficiently on labor, not by generating more revenue. These mediating effects were moderated by knowledge accrual, such that a longer tenure increased the early-tenure advantages of BI career experience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Athletes who are well prepared for the physical demands of competition are less susceptible to injury. Defining and then preparing athletes for these in-game demands is critical to athlete health and performance. The injury burden within Major League Baseball (MLB) is significant and differs by position. Despite its importance, the workload demands have not been described for position players in MLB. Hypothesis: That running demands would be significantly higher for outfielders, followed by infielders, and catchers, respectively, while batting and baserunning metrics would be similar across positions. Study Design: Cohort study. Level of Evidence: Level 3. Methods: Total and high-speed running distance (>75% Vmax), high-speed running count, hard accelerations (>2.78 m/s/s), defensive and baserunning minutes, total and hard throws (>75% max), and bat swing counts were calculated from Statcast data. Players with 100 games or more in the 2018 season (n = 126) were included for analysis. Results: All offensive and baserunning metrics were similar across positions; however, significant positional differences were observed for defensive and overall workload metrics. High-speed running was highest among outfielders (F 1,7 = 27.1, P < 0.01), followed by infielders, then catchers. Hard accelerations (F 1,7 = 12.9, P < 0.01) were highest among first basemen, then outfielders, remaining infielders, and catchers. Total throws (F 1,7 = 17.7, P < 0.01) were highest among middle infielders. Hard throws (P < 0.01) were highest among shortstops and third basemen. Conclusion: In-game workloads differ significantly by defensive position in MLB. These differences in running, throwing, and hitting volumes have significant implications for physical preparation and injury return-to-play progressions to optimize performance and minimize injury and reinjury risk for these athletes. Clinical Relevance: These data provide insight into how best to prepare athletes of different positions for the demands of the game both in terms of preseason preparation as well as return-to-play benchmarks following injury. These data should also serve as a platform for future research into the relationship between workload and injury among professional baseball players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The strength of the shoulder musculature involved with internal rotation and arm extension plays an important role in the overhead throwing motion for baseball athletes, both for throwing-related performance and injury risk. The maintenance of shoulder strength is a high priority for baseball athletes throughout a season; however, little is known in regards to the expected changes in strength throughout a season. To examine pre-post changes in shoulder strength, lower body power, and body composition among collegiate baseball players after the completion of a summer baseball league season. Amateur baseball players (n = 12; age: 20.9 ± 1.0 years.; height: 181.6 ± 5.6 cm; body mass: 86.4 ± 11.1 kg; BMI: 26.0 ± 2.6 kg/m2) participated in the current study. Pre- and post-competitive season, the participants completed shoulder strength assessments and body composition and countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) tests. An upper-body isometric test (athletic shoulder [ASH] test) was used to evaluate shoulder strength for each arm. Each subject completed maximal isometric contractions for both the throwing and non-throwing arms at four separate angles of abduction (180°, 'I'; 135°, 'Y'; 90°, 'T'; and −180°, 'A') while lying in a prone position. For shoulder strength, the primary dependent variable of interest was a composite measure that represented the average of the forces produced across all four positions of the ASH test (I, Y, T, A). For the ASH test composite measure, there was a trend toward a significant arm-by-time interaction effect (p = 0.08), as shoulder strength decreased by 9.03% for the throwing arm (ES = 0.72; 95% CI = [−0.27, −0.01]), compared to only 2.03% for the non-throwing arm (ES = 0.15; 95% CI = [−0.16, 0.09]), over the course of the season. The main effects of time (p = 0.16) and arm (p = 0.58) were not significant for the ASH test composite measure. There was no relationship between lower body power and throwing arm strength at baseline (r = 0.20, p = 0.56), and only a non-significant weak relationship at post-test (r = 0.28, p = 0.41). Throughout a season, baseball players may experience reductions in shoulder strength of the throwing arm with minimal changes in shoulder strength in the non-throwing arm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elbow injuries related to the throwing motion in baseball during the growth period present difficulties for early detection and may cause serious future disabilities. This study aimed to comprehensively determine the characteristics and clinical assessment of elbow pain in youth baseball players. Two hundred and sixteen young baseball players underwent elbow medical examination. Basic information and physical examination, clinical assessment, and ultrasonography results were examined. Univariate analyses were statistically performed between the pain-free (98 participants) and elbow pain (118 participants) groups. The mean age was 11.6 years, and ultrasonographic abnormalities were found on the medial side of the elbow in 37.5%. In total, 118 (54.6%) participants experienced elbow pain, with 64.4% of them complaining of elbow pain on the medial side. Players with multiple positions (≥2 positions) had a significantly higher prevalence of elbow pain. Height, weight, length of baseball experience, and positive rates of horizontal flexion and moving valgus stress tests were higher in the elbow pain group than in the pain-free group. The risk factors and clinical assessment for elbow pain are useful for the prevention and early detection of throwing elbow injuries in youth baseball players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study validates real-time biofeedback for lumbopelvic control training in baseball. The lumbopelvic region is crucial for generating kinetic energy in pitching. Real-time biofeedback enhances training effectiveness and reduces injury risk. The validity and reliability of this system were examined. Purpose: This study was to investigate the validity and reliability of the real-time biofeedback system for lumbopelvic control training. Methods: Twelve baseball players participated in this study, with data collected in two sessions separated by a week. All participants needed to do the lateral slide exercise and single-leg squat exercise in each session. Pelvic angles detected by the real-time biofeedback system were compared to the three-dimensional motion capture system (VICON) during training sessions. Additionally, pelvic angles measured by the biofeedback system were compared between the two training sessions. Results: The real-time biofeedback system exhibited moderate to strong correlations with VICON in both exercises: lateral slide exercise (r = 0.66–0.88, p < 0.05) and single-leg squat exercise (r = 0.70–0.85, p < 0.05). Good to excellent reliability was observed between the first and second sessions for both exercises: lateral slide exercise (ICC = 0.76–0.97) and single-leg squat exercise (ICC = 0.79–0.90). Conclusions: The real-time biofeedback system for lumbopelvic control training, accurately providing the correct pelvic angle during training, could enhance training effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low back pain can affect musculoskeletal problems of the upper limb in adolescent overhead athletes. However, few epidemiological studies have examined this causal relationship. This prospective cohort study aimed to investigate the relationship between baseline low back pain experience and the occurrence of future shoulder and elbow pain among high school baseball players. Participants comprised 383 high school baseball players from 43 high school baseball teams who had undergone baseline medical evaluations (a self-completed questionnaire and physical examination). The occurrence of shoulder and elbow pain during a 1-year follow-up and associations with baseline low back pain (positive subjective symptom during the last year at baseline) adjusted for flexibility of the scapulo-thoracic region, shoulder, and lower extremities, such as straight-leg raise angle (hamstring tightness), Thomas test (iliopsoas tightness), heel-buttock-distance (quadriceps tightness) and passive range of motion of the hip were investigated using multivariable analysis. A total of 307 players (80.2%) participated in the 1-year follow-up survey, with shoulder and elbow pain reported in 75 players (24.4%) and 119 players (38.8%), respectively, during follow-up. After adjusting for factors associated with shoulder pain using logistic regression modeling, significant associations between LBP experienced during the last year at baseline (odds ratio, 2.18; 95% confidence interval, 1.23–3.87; P = 0.0078) and new-onset of shoulder pain were noted. Baseline low back pain impacted future shoulder pain in high school baseball players during the 1-year follow-up. Management of shoulder pain warrants careful attention to low back pain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores free agent transactions of the Korea Baseball Organization from 2000 to 2018. It examines whether player mobility patterns differ across free agent pitchers and hitters. The probability of free agent pitchers transferring increases with the pitching position of the starting or closer pitcher. The probability of transfer for a hitter is negatively associated with age and left-handedness. The inertia of staying with the current team increases when substantial signing bonuses are paid to the free agent pitcher. A strong contract year affects the hitter mobility model, with a higher probability of transfer and a greater contribution to team wins in the final year before free agency. The longer a free agent's contract, the higher the probability of them moving. A huge increase in the annual salary one year before free agent eligibility hinders the movement of hitters, whereas financial compensation does not constrain pitchers' move. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the time he retired in 1982 as executive director of the Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) until 2019, the baseball establishment blacklisted Marvin Miller from the Baseball Hall of Fame. This article recounts how Miller, one of the most influential figures in baseball history, was excluded for so many years by the corporate‐backed plutocracy that runs the sport. The Hall of Fame's board of directors stacked the committees responsible for voting on candidates with owners and executives who despised Miller and the players union. It also reveals how and why he was eventually inducted in 2021. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses Douglas Tilden's sculpture, "The Baseball Player," which was first displayed at the Universal Exposition in Paris in 1888. The sculpture, created by Tilden, who was deaf, depicts a pitcher and is considered his first masterpiece. The sculpture currently stands in Golden Gate Park in San Francisco. The article also mentions that the Hall of Fame displays a few small replicas of the sculpture. [Extracted from the article]

This paper uses game-level Major League Baseball data to identify whether players with greater job security shirk in their preparation between games. Past work has identified evidence of moral hazard arising in multiyear Major League Baseball player contracts, but little work has been done in identifying when shirking takes place. Using a difference-in-differences estimation strategy, this study finds evidence of an inverse relationship between the number of years remaining on player contracts and performance when the player is playing on short rest, when opportunity to rest is scarce, but not on long rest. Using a triple-difference specification, evidence is found that this inverse relationship between years remaining on a player's contract when playing on short rest occurs for games played in "party cities." This evidence would suggest that between game preparation is one avenue through which players on multiyear contracts shirk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Study Design: A retrospective, cross-sectional study was conducted to analyze the implications of asymmetric baseball movements on the incidence of spondylolysis. Purpose: This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between asymmetric movements and the laterality of spondylolysis. Overview of Literature: Baseball, characterized by its asymmetric throwing and batting, may disproportionately stress one side. Lumbar spondylolysis is a frequent cause of lower back pain in young athletes, particularly those involved in activities with consistent unilateral rotations such as baseball. However, whether a link exists between the laterality in spondylolysis and the dominant throwing/batting side or whether disparities exist between pitchers and fielders remains unclear. Methods: The study included 85 players. Participants were divided into two groups: pitchers and fielders. The association between the laterality of spondylolysis and the throwing/batting side in the overall cohort and between the two groups was evaluated. Results: Among pitchers, 16 lesions appeared on the throwing side and 32 on the nonthrowing side (p=0.029). For fielders, no notable difference was observed between the two sides (p=0.363). Furthermore, batting preference did not influence the laterality of spondylolysis in either group. Conclusions: Adolescent baseball players, particularly pitchers, exhibited a higher incidence of lumbar spondylolysis on the side opposite their throwing arm. The findings of this study highlight the significant effect of asymmetrical sporting activities on the development of spondylolysis, to which pitchers are particularly susceptible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to a confounding decision by the Supreme Court in the 1920s, the sport of professional baseball was permitted to grow for over a century unconstrained by federal antitrust laws. As a result of this antitrust exemption, professional baseball players were forced to endure unique hardships in the area of labor relations, as compared to athletes in other professional sports. After decades of confusing litigation results and calls for legislation, Congress finally responded in 1998 through passage of the Curt Flood Act. However, despite broadly claiming to apply federal antitrust laws to the sport of professional baseball, the effect of the Act was far more limited. Therefore, Major League Baseball players have been forced to look elsewhere when seeking external influences to force concessions at the bargaining table. Unlike Major League Baseball players, Minor League Baseball players were unable to even approach the bargaining table until very recently. Thus, while Major League Baseball players spent decades achieving small victories to cumulatively improve their labor conditions, such opportunities were unavailable to Minor League Baseball players. However, recent years have seen this trend come to an end. Today, Minor League Baseball players possess union representation and a seat at the bargaining table. In light of these advances, legitimate questions have been raised as to the modern need for an antitrust exemption that places labor relations in baseball on an uneven playing field compared to other professional sports. Although the future of the exemption is unclear, recent history suggests that both the Supreme Court and Congress have taken note of these developments and are beginning to reexamine the modern justifications of an antitrust exemption for professional baseball. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the influence of the quality of the "deep squat" movement, adapted from the Functional Movement Screen (FMS) system, on the lower extremity movement pattern during baseball throwing, and its potential impact on throwing performance and propulsion efficiency. Twenty-two baseball players were recruited and categorized into two groups: 13 in the high-score squat group (HSS) and 9 in the low-score squat group (LSS), based on their deep squat screening results. This research explored disparities in ball velocity, propulsion efficiency, propulsion ground reaction force (GRF) characteristics, and throwing kinematics between these two groups. The findings revealed no significant difference in ball velocity between the groups. However, the LSS group demonstrated a lower propulsion GRF efficiency (p < 0.030, ES = 0.46), along with a higher vertical peak GRF (p < 0.002, ES = 0.66). In the pivot leg, the HSS group exhibited significantly lower impulse forces in the Impulse Fresultant (p < 0.035, ES = 0.45), throwing direction (p < 0.049, ES = 0.42), and vertical direction (p < 0.048, ES = 0.42). Additionally, the contribution to the ball velocity of the pivot leg was significantly greater in the HSS group, along with significantly better efficiency in Impulse Fresultant (p < 0.035, ES = 0.45), throwing direction (p < 0.053, ES = 0.41), and vertical direction (p < 0.032, ES = 0.46). In the leading leg, the HSS group demonstrated significantly lower impulse forces in the Impulse Fresultant (p < 0.001, ES = 0.69), throwing direction (p < 0.007, ES = 0.58), and vertical direction (p < 0.001, ES = 0.70). Moreover, the contribution to the ball velocity of the leading leg was significantly greater in the HSS group, accompanied by significantly better efficiency in Impulse Fresultant (p < 0.003, ES = 0.63), throwing direction (p < 0.005, ES = 0.60), and vertical direction (p < 0.021, ES = 0.49). In conclusion, this study suggests that squat screening is a valuable tool for assessing propulsion efficiency. Coaches and trainers should be mindful of players with low squat quality but high throwing performance, as they may face increased impact and injury risks in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The optimal limb position during stress ultrasound (SUS) evaluation of elbow valgus laxity has not been standardized. Purpose: To compare 2 elbow positions (at 90° and 30° of flexion) and report which position method better represents the increased valgus laxity characteristics of baseball players. Study Design: Controlled laboratory study. Methods: Eighteen college baseball players with no history of elbow pain or elbow disorders who belonged to a college baseball club between April and November 2021 participated in this study. The medial elbow joint space (MEJS) was recorded by ultrasonography at rest and under valgus stress, and the difference in MEJS between the conditions was considered the valgus laxity. For all participants, the MEJS was recorded at 90° and 30° of elbow flexion. In the 90° of flexion position, the participant was positioned in the supine position with abduction and external rotation of the shoulder, and 2.5 kgf of valgus stress was applied proximally to the wrist. In the 30° of flexion position, the participant was positioned in the sitting position with abduction and external rotation of the shoulder, and 3.0 kgf of valgus stress was applied to the ulnar head. Valgus laxity on the throwing and nonthrowing sides was compared between the 2 elbow positions using paired t tests or Wilcoxon signed-rank tests after checking the normality. Results: There was a significant difference in valgus laxity on the throwing side between the 90° and 30° of flexion positions (1.9 vs 1.1 mm, respectively; P =.002), whereas no significant difference between positions was seen on the nonthrowing side (P =.06). Conclusion: SUS with the elbow flexed at 90° more clearly detected valgus laxity in the study participants than the 30° of flexion position. Clinical Relevance: The quantitative evaluation of valgus laxity is important for baseball players to assess the risk of ulnar collateral ligament injury. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Elbow pain is common among youth baseball players and elbow MRI is increasingly utilized to complement the clinical assessment. Objective: To characterize, according to skeletal maturity, findings on elbow MRI from symptomatic youth baseball players. Materials and methods: This IRB-approved, HIPAA-compliant retrospective study included pediatric (<18 years of age) baseball players with elbow pain who underwent MRI examinations between 2010 and 2021. Two radiologists, blinded to the outcome, independently reviewed examinations to categorize skeletal maturity and to identify osseous and soft tissue findings with consensus used to resolve discrepancies. Findings were compared between skeletally immature and mature patients and logistic regression models identified predictors of surgery. Results: This study included 130 children (115 boys, 15 girls): 85 skeletally immature and 45 mature (12.8±2.3 and 16.2±1.0 years, respectively, p<0.01). Kappa coefficient for interobserver agreement on MRI findings ranged from 0.64 to 0.96. Skeletally immature children, when compared to mature children, were more likely to have elbow effusion (27%, 23/85 vs 9%, 4/45; p=0.03), medial epicondyle marrow edema (53%, 45/85 vs 16%, 7/45; p<0.01), avulsion fracture (19%, 16/85 vs 2%, 1/45; p=0.02), and juvenile osteochondritis dissecans (OCD, 22%, 19/85 vs 7%, 3/45; p=0.04), whereas skeletally mature children were more likely to have sublime tubercle marrow edema (49%, 22/45 vs 11%, 9/85; p<0.01) and triceps tendinosis (40%, 18/45 vs 20%, 17/85; p=0.03). Intra-articular body (OR=4.2, 95% CI 1.5–47.8, p=0.02) and osteochondritis dissecans (OR=3.7, 95% CI 1.1–11.9, p=0.03) were independent predictors for surgery. Conclusion: Differential patterns of elbow MRI findings were observed among symptomatic pediatric baseball players based on regional skeletal maturity. Intra-articular body and osteochondritis dissecans were independent predictors of surgery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Proper orthosis design may help youth baseball players develop safer pitching mechanics to prevent elbow injuries. This study evaluated the impact of a custom elbow orthosis on pitching biomechanics and adverse events. Ten 11–12-year-old players (mean age 11.5 years) from a regional league team were recruited. The inclusion criteria were at least two years of baseball experience. Six players were randomly assigned to the orthosis group, with four in the control group. Anthropometric data and baseline characteristics were recorded. A video analysis assessed elbow flexion angle during pitching at baseline and at 2 months. The frequency of orthosis wear was also tracked. Adverse events during twice-weekly practices were documented. Post-study surveys evaluated orthosis comfort, stability, and safety perceptions. In the orthosis group (n = 6), four participants showed improved elbow flexion angle, and two of the six participants showed almost no change. The overall median difference was 23.5°. In the control group (n = 4), three participants showed improvement, with a median improvement of 5.5°. Twelve adverse events, including pain, were reported by players not wearing orthoses, whereas no events occurred with orthosis use. Individual players in the control group or who did not wear the orthosis correctly experienced multiple episodes of pain from pitching over the study period. This preliminary study indicates a custom elbow orthosis can optimize pitching biomechanics and prevent adverse events in youth baseball players over the course of two months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Major League Baseball's (MLB) unwritten rules and unspoken norms communicate the continuing role that white American cultural values have within the sport. Coded into the past and present, foreign-born players, especially those from Latin America, confront these norms as they arrive to MLB with a distinctly Caribbean tíguere style of play. MLB seeks to overcome these differences by promoting its young Latino superstars through the marketing campaign Let the Kids Play. However, all actors, from The Office of the Commissioner of Baseball to current players, must increase their cultural competency and uproot their essentialist viewpoints to understand that these players are not trying to show up their opponent, but are instead adhering to the style of play they themselves learned and know best. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Approximately 90% of players in Minor League Baseball will be released at some point in their career. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively explore the role of individuals' basic psychological needs during the release from professional baseball and throughout their subsequent transition to a new career. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 12 former Minor League Baseball players. Thematic analysis generated four themes: (a) The release resulted in immediate but temporary basic psychological need thwarting, (b) the "liberating experience" of the release allowed individuals to perceive autonomy in the transition out of affiliated baseball, (c) perceptions of competence served as the foundation for a positive transition to a new career, and (d) meaningful connections fostered individuals' perception of relatedness in the transition out of affiliated baseball. The findings suggest that need fulfillment might act as a buffer between potential stressors in the transition process and athletes' cognitive, emotional, and behavioral response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Baseball and rap music are often not considered culturally or historically synonymous, but a shift appears underway. This research examines how 239 rap lyrics reach across the formerly confined (mostly racialized) boundaries of baseball to engage the sport through its reference to 128 baseball players. A thematic analysis explores how the languages of baseball and rap culture intersect through linguistic translation. The authors develop a broad understanding of the positive and negative "baller" references, and how it could affect the future growth of baseball role models for Black youth athletes. Thus, baseball "text" as a source language translates to rap "text" as a target language to form a commonly constructed language at an intersection of music, sports, and masculinity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]