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Abstract: Daub, BD, McLean, BD, Heishman, AD, Peak, KM, and Coutts, AJ. The relationship between mental fatigue and shooting performance over the course of a National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I basketball season. J Strength Cond Res 38(2): 334-341, 2024-The aim of this investigation was to examine the presence of mental fatigue and concurrent changes in shooting performance across various experimental weeks throughout a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) basketball season. Fifteen elite male NCAA Division I collegiate basketball players (age 20.2 ± 1.2 years, height 199.3 ± 7.1 cm, and body mass 93.1 ± 8.6 kg) volunteered for this study. Mental fatigue and basketball shooting performance was evaluated at 4 timepoints with varying seasonal demands: high game volume (GAME), high academic load (ACADEMIC), no games and no academic load (PRACTICE), and standard number of games and academic requirements (TYPICAL). Subjective mental fatigue increased significantly ( p ≤ 0.05) from Pre to Post brief psychomotor vigilance test (PVT-B) measurements at the end of the ACADEMIC week ( p = 0.002, d = 1.51) and from beginning to end of the ACADEMIC week ( p < 0.001, d = 2.21). Ratings of mental effort were significantly increased during the ACADEMIC week ( p < 0.001, d = 1.67). Recovery stress questionnaire (REST-Q) showed significant differences between week GAME and ACADEMIC with an increase in Social Stress ( p = 0.001, d = 0.84), Fatigue ( p = 0.021, d = 1.12), Disturbed Breaks ( p = 0.024, d = 0.57), and Emotional Exhaustion ( p = 0.035, d = 0.75). Lower shooting performance was observed during the ACADEMIC week from Pre to Post ( p = 0.009, d = 0.35) and higher scores Pre to Post in the TYPICAL week ( p = 0.008, d = 0.25). Basketball shooting performance was significantly reduced after increased levels of mental fatigue stemming from added academic stress. In addition, an increase in sport-specific training or games had no effect on subsequent basketball shooting performance. Special consideration should be given by coaches around examination periods because the existence of academic stressors can influence basketball shooting performance., (Copyright © 2023 National Strength and Conditioning Association.)

Purpose: The aim of this investigation was to examine the impact of mental fatigue on basketball specific shooting performance, utilising the newly developed basketball Standardized Shooting Task (SST)., Methods: Fifteen male elite NCAA Division 1 collegiate basketball players (Age 20.2 ± 1.2 y, height 199.3 ± 7.1 cm, body mass 93.1 ± 8.6 kg) volunteered to participate in a randomised, counterbalanced crossover design undergoing three conditions (Control, Stroop, and Film). The task, performed on three consecutive days, was comprised of 60 free throw attempts followed by a 4-minute spot-to-spot shooting., Results: Visual Analog Scales revealed significantly higher levels of mental fatigue following the Stroop (54.2 ± 24.5) condition compared to the Control (24.5 ± 16.2) and higher levels of mental effort in the Stroop (61.0 ± 31.3) and Film (49.9 ± 27.7) compared to the Control (14.0 ± 18.5). No significant differences were observed for Motivation among groups ( p  > 0.05). There was a significant decrease ( p  = 0.006) in number of shots made in 4-minutes (MAKE 4MIN ; control = 49.5 ± 10.2, Stroop = 44.0 ± 10.6, and Film = 45.1 ± 11.7) and shots missed in 4-minutes (MISS 4MIN ; control = 27.3 ± 7.0, Stroop = 30.9 ± 7.1, and Film = 30.9 ± 7.6). No significant differences were detected for any other performance variables., Conclusion: These data demonstrate that mental fatigue negatively impacts basketball shooting performance in elite collegiate basketball players. We suggest that practitioners and coaches encourage athletes to abstain from cognitively demanding tasks prior to basketball competition.

Abstract: Heishman, AD, Daub, BD, Miller, RM, Freitas, EDS, and Bemben, MG. Longitudinal hydration assessment in collegiate basketball players over various training phases. J Strength Cond Res 35(4): 1089-1094, 2021-To the best of our knowledge, previous literature has not longitudinally examined hydration status in collegiate basketball players. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to examine the prepractice hydration status of collegiate basketball players across various training phases for 2 consecutive years. Retrospective analyses examined prepractice urine-specific gravity (USG) assessments obtained from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I male basketball players during the preseason and competitive season, for 2 consecutive years. The first year (year 1 = Y1) of analysis consisted of 15 athletes and the second year (year 2 = Y2) consisted of 16 athletes, with 8 athletes in both seasons. Hydration status was classified based on the National Athletic Trainers' criteria: (a) euhydrated, USG < 1.020; (b) hypohydrated, USG = 1.020-1.030; and (c) significantly hypohydrated, USG > 1.030. Additional comparisons examined the association of minutes played with hydration status and changes in hydration status for athletes returning from Y1 to Y2. The results indicated 55-65.7% of cases showed levels of significant hypohydration during the preseason and competitive seasons for both years. Preseason hydration status was significantly better than the competitive season (Y1, p = 0.008; Y2, p = 0.005). Despite significant differences in minutes played (p < 0.001), no differences in hydration status were observed. Returning athletes displayed no differences in hydration status between Y1 and Y2. Collegiate basketball players show levels of hypohydration when longitudinally examined across various training phases. Although hydration may be improved in the preseason, alternative factors such as average game minutes played and length in program may not influence hydration status., (Copyright © 2018 National Strength and Conditioning Association.)

Limited research has paralleled concomitant changes in external training load (eTL) and countermovement jump (CMJ) performance. Therefore, this investigation characterized eTL and CMJ performance changes across preseason training in Division 1 male collegiate basketball athletes, while examining the influence of position (Guard vs. Forward/Center) and scholarship status (Scholarship = S vs. Walk-on = WO). During 22 practices, eTL was monitored in 14 male athletes, with weekly CMJs performed to quantify neuromuscular performance (Jump Height [JH], Flight Time:Contraction Time [FT:CT], Reactive Strength Index Modified [RSI Mod ]). PlayerLoad per minute was significantly higher during W1 and W2 (5.4 ± 1.3au and 5.3 ± 1.2au, respectively; p < 0.05) compared to subsequent weeks, but no additional differences in eTL parameters across time were observed. Scholarship athletes displayed greater PlayerLoad (S = 777.1 ± 35.6, WO = 530.1 ± 56.20; Inertial Movement Analysis (IMA) IMA&#95;High (S = 70.9 ± 15.2, WO = 41.3 ± 15.2); IMA&#95;Medium (S = 159.9 ± 30.7, WO = 92.7 ± 30.6); and IMA&#95;Low (S = 700.6 ± 105.1, WO = 405 ± 105.0;) (p < 0.05), with no observed differences in eTL by position. Moderate decreases in FT:CT and RSI Mod paralleled increased eTL. Significant increases in practice intensity (W1 and W2) did not impact CMJ performance, suggesting athletes could cope with the prescribed training loads. However, moderate perturbations in FT:CT and RSI Mod paralleled the weeks with intensified training. Cumulatively, scholarship status appears to influence eTL while player position does not., (© Journal of Sports Science and Medicine.)

Heishman, AD, Daub, BD, Miller, RM, Freitas, EDS, Frantz, BA, and Bemben, MG. Countermovement jump reliability performed with and without an arm swing in NCAA Division 1 intercollegiate basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 34(2): 546-558, 2020-The countermovement jump (CMJ) is routinely used in athlete performance to quantify adaptions to training, as well as monitor neuromuscular readiness and fatigue. However, controversy remains in whether to incorporate an arm swing during the CMJ (CMJ AS) or keep the hands placed on the hips (CMJ NAS). Incorporating the arms provides a higher degree of sport-specificity that may yield improved reliability, especially in skilled jumpers. By contrast, the hands-on-hips approach isolates lower extremity force production and eliminates potential arm-swing variation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to establish the reliability of CMJ typical (CMJ-TYP), CMJ concentric alternative (CMJ-Conc-ALT), and CMJ eccentric alternative (CMJ-Ecc-ALT) variables obtained during the CMJ AS and CMJ NAS. Twenty-two (men = 14, women = 8) NCAA Division 1 collegiate basketball players performed 3 CMJ AS and 3 CMJ NAS on a force plate, in a randomized order. To assess the test-retest reliability, participants returned 1 week later to perform 3 additional CMJ AS and 3 CMJ NAS. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV) were used to assess intersession and intrasession reliability for the various CMJ variables. A majority of CMJ-TYP and several CMJ-Conc-ALT and CMJ-Ecc-ALT variables exhibited adequate intersession and intrasession reliability (ICC > 0.700 and CV <10%) during both the CMJ AS and the CMJ NAS. Countermovement jump AS may provide more pertinent information about long-term changes in sport-specific performance, whereas the CMJ NAS may be more beneficial for detecting acute changes in neuromuscular fatigue and athlete readiness.

Heishman, AD, Curtis, MA, Saliba, E, Hornett, RJ, Malin, SK, and Weltman, AL. Noninvasive assessment of internal and external player load: implications for optimizing athletic performance. J Strength Cond Res 32(5): 1280-1287, 2018-Few data exist that assess athlete tracking and monitoring for the development of strategies to optimize performance and reduce fatigue in elite athletes. The purpose of the present study was to assess the efficacy of external load and internal stress monitoring as assessment tools for examining a performance index of fatigue. A retrospective analysis was performed on data collected over the course of the preseason in 10 elite male NCAA Division 1 basketball players. Internal stress was assessed using Omegawave Technology readiness scores and compared with the performance index of countermovement jump (CMJ). The external load that accumulated during the previous practice, quantified by PlayerLoad (PL; Catapult), was compared with CMJ values and Omegawave scores. The results indicated that high, compared to low CNS Omegawave Readiness Scores (6.7 ± 05.1, 4.5 ± 1.2 AU; p < 0.001), were associated with increased CMJ (62.1 ± 6.5 vs. 59.4 ± 6.6 cm; p = 0.05), Power (6,590 ± 526.7 vs. 6,383.5 ± 606.8 W; p = 0.05), Omegawave Overall Readiness (5.8 ± 1.1 vs. 5.0 ± 0.7 AU; p = 0.05), and Omega Potential (Omega) (21.3 ± 6.3 vs. 9.9 ± 20.8 mV; p = 0.07). An increased PL during the previous exposure was associated with decreased CMJ (58.7 ± 4.7 cm vs. 60.4 ± 5.1 cm; p < 0.001) and increased TRIMP (135.1 ± 35.9 vs. 65.6 ± 20.0 AU; p < 0.001), and duration (115.4 ± 27.1 vs. 65.56 ± 20.0 minutes; p = < 0.001) despite no differences in Omegawave CNS Readiness scores. We conclude that Omegawave and Catapult technologies provide independent information related to performance and may be effective tools for monitoring athlete performance.

Time of day is a key factor that influences the optimization of athletic performance. Intercollegiate coaches oftentimes hold early morning strength training sessions for a variety of factors including convenience. However, few studies have specifically investigated the effect of early morning vs. late afternoon strength training on performance indices of fatigue. This is athletically important because circadian and/or ultradian rhythms and alterations in sleep patterns can affect training ability. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of morning vs. afternoon strength training on an acute performance index of fatigue (countermovement jump height, CMJ), player readiness (Omegawave), and self-reported sleep quantity. We hypothesized that afternoon training sessions would be associated with increased levels of performance, readiness, and self-reported sleep. A retrospective analysis was performed on data collected over the course of the preseason on 10 elite National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1 male basketball players. All basketball-related activities were performed in the afternoon with strength and conditioning activities performed either in the morning or in the afternoon. The average values for CMJ, power output (Power), self-reported sleep quantity (sleep), and player readiness were examined. When player load and duration were matched, CMJ (58.8 ± 1.3 vs. 61.9 ± 1.6 cm, p = 0.009), Power (6,378.0 ± 131.2 vs. 6,622.1 ± 172.0 W, p = 0.009), and self-reported sleep duration (6.6 ± 0.4 vs. 7.4 ± 0.25 p = 0.016) were significantly higher with afternoon strength and conditioning training, with no differences observed in player readiness values. We conclude that performance is suppressed with morning training and is associated with a decrease in self-reported quantity of sleep.

The purpose of this investigation was to develop a basketball shooting performance test and subsequently assess the tests measurement characteristics and construct validity. The novel standardized shooting task (SST) was comprised of 60 free throw attempts followed by a 4-min spot-to-spot shooting segment (including seven sequential locations either outside the 3-point line or at a 15-foot mark, depending upon player role). After development of the SST, 28 (male = 16, female = 12) NCAA Division I basketball players completed the task on separate days (Part 1; reliability) and then following a standard basketball practice (Part 2; sensitivity). SST performance collected from 13 males was then compared with shots made during live practices and expert ranking's (Part 3; construct validity). Interday reliability (Part 1) measures were: intraclass correlations coefficient = 0.77–0.86; coefficient of variation = 1.9–12.0%. There were no significant differences (p >0.05) between days for any performance variables. From pre- to post-practice (Part 2) repeated measures analyses of variance showed a significant difference (p = 0.03) for shots made in 4-min (MAKE4MIN; pre = 51.6 ± 8.8, post practice = 48.7 ± 9.3), while no significant differences were detected for any other variables. Results from Part 3 indicated large correlations for Shooter Rank versus MAKE4MIN (r = 0.814, p = 0.001) and Shooter Rank versus shooting percentage in live play (r = 0.815, p = 0.001). These data demonstrate the SST poses sufficient reliability and sensitivity to detect meaningful changes in performance, as well as adequate construct validity. Therefore, offering an ecologically valid measurement which can be incorporated to athlete monitoring strategies in elite basketballers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few data exist that assess athlete tracking and monitoring for the development of strategies to optimize performance and reduce fatigue in elite athletes. The purpose of the present study was to assess the efficacy of external load and internal stress monitoring as assessment tools for examining a performance index of fatigue. A retrospective analysis was performed on data collected over the course of the preseason in 10 elite male NCAA Division 1 basketball players. Internal stress was assessed using Omegawave Technology readiness scores and compared with the performance index of countermovement jump (CMJ). The external load that accumulated during the previous practice, quantified by PlayerLoad (PL; Catapult), was compared with CMJ values and Omegawave scores. The results indicated that high, compared to low CNS Omegawave Readiness Scores (6.7 ± 05.1, 4.5 ± 1.2 AU; p < 0.001), were associated with increased CMJ (62.1 ± 6.5 vs. 59.4 ± 6.6 cm; p = 0.05), Power (6,590 ± 526.7 vs. 6,383.5 ± 606.8 W; p = 0.05), Omegawave Overall Readiness (5.8 ± 1.1 vs. 5.0 ± 0.7 AU; p = 0.05), and Omega Potential (Omega) (21.3 ± 6.3 vs. 9.9 ± 20.8 mV; p = 0.07). An increased PL during the previous exposure was associated with decreased CMJ (58.7 ± 4.7 cm vs. 60.4 ± 5.1 cm; p < 0.001) and increased TRIMP (135.1 ± 35.9 vs. 65.6 ± 20.0 AU; p < 0.001), and duration (115.4 ± 27.1 vs. 65.56 ± 20.0 minutes; p = < 0.001) despite no differences in Omegawave CNS Readiness scores. We conclude that Omegawave and Catapult technologies provide independent information related to performance and may be effective tools for monitoring athlete performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The countermovement jump (CMJ) is frequently used in team sports to monitor short- and long-term changes in neuromuscular performance. Practical relevance in longitudinal changes may be subtle, requiring detailed and consistent testing protocols to limit error and allow for detection of meaningful change. Collegiate basketball players often wear different types of shoes depending upon the training activity, potentially influencing CMJ performance outcomes. PURPOSE: To evaluate the influence of footwear on key CMJ performance variables used for routine monitoring strategies in a cohort of women's collegiate basketball players. METHODS: 11 NCAA female basketball players performed three CMJs in sport- (S), training- (T), and olympic weightlifting (WL) shoes, in a randomized order in the same testing session. One-way repeated measures analyses of variance were used to discern differences in Concentric Mean Force (ConcMF), Eccentric Mean Force (EccMF), Jump Height (JH) and Reactive Strength Index Modified (RSIMod) during the CMJ among shoe conditions, with significant set at p<0.05. Effects sizes (Cohen's d) were calculated for pairwise comparisons and interpreted as trivial (0-0.19), small (0.20-0.49), medium (0.50-0.79) and large (≥0.80). RESULTS: Significant differences were detected among shoe-types for ConcMF (T=1650.1 ± 182.4; S=1645.1 ± 188.2; WL=1616.6 ± 164, p=0.008), EccMF (T=808.6 ± 84.2; S=810.1 ± 85.5; WL=812.5 ± 83.9, p<0.001), JH (T=28.2 ± 3.3; S=28.2 ± 3.4; WL=27.3 ± 2.7, p=0.004) and RSIMod (T=0.45 ± 0.06; S=0.44 ± 0.06; WL=0.42 ± 0.05, p=0.001). Post-hoc pairwise comparisons revealed T exhibited significantly greater ConcMF (p=0.018, d=0.19), EccMF (p=0.002, d=0.05), JH (p=0.040, d=0.32) and RSIMod (p=0.004, d=0.49) compared to WL. Similarly, S demonstrated significantly greater EccMF (p=0.014, d=0.03), JH (p=0.035, d=0.33) and RSIMod (p=0.032, d=0.40) compared to WL. No significant differences and only trivial effects appeared between S and T (p>0.05, d<0.1). CONCLUSION: These findings suggest footwear significantly influences CMJ performance. Practically, controlling for footwear between S and T shoes may not be necessary when using the CMJ for routine athlete monitoring. However, WL shoes appear to significantly influence the CMJ, resulting in decreases in performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sport specific skills are a key aspect of success in basketball players, however previous work has yet to establish a standardized test to assess these components of performance, which may be useful in talent identification and athlete monitoring strategies. PURPOSE: To develop and assess the intersession reliability of a new basketball shooting performance test. METHODS: Twenty-eight (male=16, female=12) NCAA Division I basketball players participated in two shooting sessions (Session 1=S1; Session 2 = S2) separated by one week. Participants performed the Spotlight Shooting Test (SST), comprised of 60 free throws followed by a 4-minute shooting segment (4min shooting) where athletes shot from 7 sequential spots (left corner, left wing, left slot, top, right slot, right wing, right corner) around the 3-point arc or at a 15-foot mark, depending upon player position. Two consecutive makes were required for progression to the next shooting spot. A dependent t-test was used to detect differences between sessions in Free Throw Makes (FT), makes during 4min shooting (MAKES), misses during 4min shooting (MISS), total number of shots during 4min shooting (TOTAL), and number of spots reached during 4min shooting (SPOTS), with significance set at p<0.05. Intersession relative and absolute reliability were assessed using the intraclass correlations coefficient (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV), respectively. Additionally, smallest worthwhile change was computed and compared to the typical error (TE) to examine the ability to detect minimal levels of meaningful changes in performance. RESULTS: No significant differences (p >0.05) were revealed between sessions for FT (S1=48.5±6.7; S2=47.9±8.0), MAKES (S1=52.4±3.5; S2= 51.7±8.4), MISS (S1=29.86±10.2; S2=27.3±6.8), TOTAL (S1=79.4±4.2; S2=78.9±4.5), or SPOTS (S1=21.6±3.1; S2=21.1±4.3). Reliability results were as follows: FT (ICC=0.79, CV =11.57%), MAKES (ICC=0.86, CV=7.92%), MISS (ICC=0.77, CV=11.93%), TOTAL (ICC=0.85, CV =1.96%), SPOTS (ICC=0.85, CV=12.01%). CONCLUSIONS: These data support the reliability SST, suggesting the potential utility of the SST when generating athlete performance profiles among collegiate basketball players. Future research should examine the sensitivity of the SST for use in athlete monitoring strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PURPOSE: To examine the effects of back-to-back simulated games on neuromuscular performance in collegiate women's basketball players. METHODS: Eight NCAA women's basketball players engaged in two consecutive simulated games separated by 24 hours. Participants performed the countermovement jump (CMJ) before (Pre-Game 1=PreG1; Pre-Game 2=PreG2) and after (Post-Game 1=PostG1 ; Post-Game 2=PostG2) each simulated game and 48 hours (Post-Game 2=48Post) after PostG2. Internal (iTL) and external training load(s) (eTL) were captured during each game. A paired t-test was used to examine game differences in iTL and eTL. One-way repeated measures analyses of variance were used to detect differences in Concentric Mean Force (ConcMF), Jump Height (JH), Contraction Time (CT), and Reactive Strength Index-Modified (RSIMod), with significance set at p<0.05. Cohen's d effect sizes were calculated for pairwise comparisons and interpreted as trivial (0-0.19), small (0.20-0.49), medium (0.50-0.79), and large (>0.80). RESULTS: No significant differences were detected in eTL volume (PlayerLoad (PL), p=0.074) or intensity (PL/min=0.379), but significantly greater iTL was observed in G1 compared to G2 with greater Training Impulse (p=0.002) and average heart rate (p=0.001). Significant differences appeared across time in ConcMF (p=0.007), JH (p=0.001), and RSIMod (p=0.050), but not CT (p=0.356). Pairwise comparisons revealed significant decreases in JH from PreG1(28.3±4.2) to PostG2 (25.8±3.03cm, p=0.036, d=0.69). While not significant (p>0.05) a large effect for decreases in JH was observed from PreG1 to 48Post (p=0.082, d=0.8). ConcMF significantly decreased from PostG1 (1730.1±177.3N) to 48Post (1636.9±131.6N, p=0.05, d=0.41). RSIMod displayed significant reductions at 48Post (0.435±0.12) compared to both PreG1 (0.50±0.12, p=0.001, d=0.58) and PostG2 (0.46±0.10, p=0.015, d=0.43). While not significant RSIMod displayed a moderate decrease from PreG1 to PostG1 (d=0.43). CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest back-to-back gameplay suppresses CMJ performance with large deficits in JH and explosiveness (RSIMod) manifesting 48 hours after the completion of play. Interestingly, it appears deficits in explosiveness may result from a change in gross output (JH) rather than alterations in movement strategy (CT). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]