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The terms 'coexistence', 'tolerance,' and 'acceptance' appear frequently in conservation literature, but lack consistent characterization, making them difficult to apply across intervention frameworks. This review aims to describe the common characterizations of these three terms using Africa-based research as a case study. Through systematic lexical searches, we identified 392 papers containing one or more of the three terms. We assessed their usage, definition, and measurement (or lack thereof) in wildlife conservation. Coexistence was used in 46% of papers, but was defined in only 2% and measured in 4%. Tolerance and acceptance were used in 63% and 61% of the papers in which they appeared, respectively, defined in 4% and 2%, and measured in 19% and 5%. These results confirm the lack of clear understanding of these concepts and evidence the need for a precise lexicon. This would allow conservationists to cohesively describe their work and increase replicability of research across contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

African social workers and psychologists have called for the utility of ubuntu philosophy in the fields of social work and psychology. Ubuntu is an African philosophy that is based on humanness, kindness, communality, socio-structural issues such as social justice, and human rights. This paper explores the philosophy of ubuntu guided by the seven modalities of the multimodal approach, which are behaviour, effect, sensation, imagery, cognition, interpersonal relationships and drugs/biology. The article suggests that ubuntu as an African philosophy has potential to contribute two modalities in addition to the seven modalities in the multimodal approach by the South African psychologist Arnold Lazarus. It argues that ubuntu contributes two domains in assessments and these are as follows: the person-physical environment relationship and the spiritual relationship. Given the emphasis on eco-spiritually informed social work, this paper calls for the adoption of these two modalities for the assessment and intervention plans in social work practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Changed health behaviours can contribute significantly to improved health. Consequently, significant investments have been channelled towards health behaviour change initiatives in Africa. Health behaviour change initiatives that address social, economic and environmental levers for behaviour change can create more sustained impact. Through a scoping study of the literature, we explored the literature on behaviour change initiatives in Africa, to assess their typologies. We explored whether the availability of initiatives reflected country demographic characteristics, namely life expectancy, gross domestic product (GDP), and population sizes. Finally, we assessed topical themes of interventions relative to frequent causes of mortality. We used the Behaviour Change Wheel intervention categories to categorise each paper into a typology of initiatives. Using Pearson's correlation coefficient, we explored whether there was a correlation between the number of initiatives implemented in a country in the specified period, and socio-demographic indicators, namely, GDP per capita, total GDP, population size, and life expectancy. Almost 64% of African countries were represented in the identified initiatives. One in five initiatives was implemented in South Africa, while there was a dearth of literature from Central Africa and western parts of North Africa. There was a positive correlation between the number of initiatives and GDP per capita. Most initiatives focused on addressing sexually transmitted infections and were short-term trials and/or pilots. Most initiatives were downstream focused e.g. with education and training components, while upstream intervention types such as the use of incentives were under-explored. We call for more emphasis on initiatives that address contextual facilitators and barriers, integrate considerations for sustainable development, and consider intra-regional deprivation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on the introduction of SWM technology, soil moisture and nutrient monitoring tools, alongside Agricultural Innovation Platforms (AIP) in three small-scale irrigation schemes in southern Africa. Quantitative and qualitative data are presented on the changes and benefits that have resulted, including increased yield and profitability. The findings emphasize that information prior and subsequent to adoption is needed, and the importance of understanding and enhancing the incentive framework for behavioural change, including both economic and physical returns. The findings illustrate SWM technology is strengthened when introduced with credible multi-stakeholder processes, such as an AIP, that facilitate institutional innovation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background: Crime and violence causes massive disruptions to the health, survival and development of populations. In South Africa, incredibly high rates of crime and violence are noted. The country also has a very large youth population whose health, survival and development are key to economic growth. Among other efforts to encourage healthy youth development and the promotion of social activities such as sports, youth groups, choirs and so forth. This study examines the relationship between perceived community safety and the uptake of social activities among youth in South Africa. Data and methods: This paper uses data from the National Youth Lifestyle Survey (2008) with an unweighted sample of 4,391 youth (age12-22 years old). Using chi-square and logistic regression analysis the association between perceived community safety and social activity participation are tested. Findings: The results indicate that youth participation in social activities in South Africa is high (55% of males and 45% of females). Among males, the most prominent activity is sports (51.8%), while for females there is high participation in choir and singing groups (55.68%). More than 50% of males perceive their communities as risky while less than half of females feel the same. Male youth are more likely to participate in social activities if they perceive their communities as risky (OR = 1.04). Females (OR = 0.83), youth have a negative view of their future (OR = 0.43) are less likely to participate in social activities. Conclusions: There exists an association between youth’s perception of community safety and their participation in social activities. Whether sports and groups are protective or enabling environments for youth from unsafe communities is moot. More in-depth research is needed on why youth participate in these clubs and groups to truly understand the role of social activities in South African societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The population of Ghana is increasingly becoming urbanized with about 70% of the estimated 27 million people living in urban and peri-urban areas. Nonetheless, eight out of the ten regions in Ghana remain predominantly rural where only 32% of the national health sector workforce works. Moreover, the rural-urban disparities in the density of health tutors (staff responsible for pre-service training of health professionals) are enormous. This paper explores perceived needs of health tutors in rural and urban health training institutions in Ghana. Methods: This is a descriptive qualitative study conducted in the Greater Accra and Northern regions of Ghana. The Study used the deductive thematic and sub-thematic analysis approaches. Five health training institutions were randomly sampled, and 72 tutors engaged in separate focus group discussions with an average size of 14 participants per group in each training institution. Results: Perceived rural-urban disparities among health tutors were found in the payment of extra duty allowances; school infrastructure including libraries and internet connectivity; staff accommodation; and opportunities for scholarships and higher education. Health tutors in rural areas generally expressed more frustration with these work conditions than those in urban areas. Conclusions: There is the need to initiate and sustain work incentives that promote motivation of rural health tutors to control ongoing rural-urban migration of qualified staff. It is recommended the following incentives be prioritized to promote retention of qualified health tutors in rural health training schools: payment of research, book and rural allowances; early promotion of rural staff; prioritizing rural tutors for scholarships, and introduction of national best health tutor awards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose a novel laboratory experiment to document the pressure to share income within social networks in Africa. We find that the redistributive pressure exerted via the possibility of receiving a claim increases altruism, while the possibility of hiding from such claim reduces it. Our results indicate that sharing norms are crucial drivers of giving to other members of the network. We also find that pressure to share has a detrimental effect on the undertaking of profitable but risky investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both the International Labor Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) concur that occupational health and safety in Africa needs strengthening. In support of this realization are the need to maintain and promote workers' health and working capacity, and the need to become conducive to safety and health by improving both the working environment and work. The fight against HIV and AIDS in the workplace is a continental priority. In the absence of any other definitive or similar study, this study aims to establish a valid baseline assessment of the levels of knowledge, types of attitudes, perceptions and beliefs of construction workers in South Africa regarding HIV infection and AIDS. It performs both a descriptive function with respect to how many workers have correct knowledge regarding AIDS and HIV and a predictive function in terms of how knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, behaviors and certain biographical traits relate to one another. This paper examines the attitudes and perceptions of HIV and AIDS among construction workers as determined during the first phase of an exploratory study commenced in August 2002. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies the migration orientation behavior of the red-billed quelea in Africa. Migration patterns; Direction and timing of migration; Validity of hypothesized migration directions.

The author discusses French immigration policy, with a focus on migrant streams from Western Africa. "The purpose is first to highlight convergent and opposed interests between the migratory policy elaborated from 1945 to 1975, during ¿the glorious [thirty years]', and the African migrants' strategies as well as the consequences upon the countries [of origin]. Then, the paper will question the effects of those changes both on the immigrants' behaviours and on the countries [of origin]....", (excerpt)

"In this paper, we consider crossovers of demographic density distributions from...populations that have the same fertility and mortality rates. We focus on observed populations and their associated stationary and stable models, and on proportional distributions of persons, births, deaths and reproductive values.... Three different populations were selected to represent a range of demographic behavior. Those populations are Japan 1963, a low mortality, low fertility population; Togo 1961, a high mortality, high fertility population; and the United States 1919-1921, a population whose fertility and mortality are intermediate.", (excerpt)

This paper first presents an overview of data on 390 international crises, which incorporate 826 foreign policy crises, from the end of 1918 to the end of 1988. A set of crisis profiles is then constructed for the two superpowers of the post-World War II era, and for three regional systems, Africa, Asia and the Middle East. The data on international crises are presented in terms of a common format for the regional profiles, with slight modifications for the superpowers, in order to facilitate comparisons: time and space; duration; onset; threat; behavior; severity of violence; US/USSR activity; global organization involvement; and outcome. Within these categories, distributions are noted for each of the polarity structures—multipolarity (1918-39), bipolarity (1945-62), and polycentrism (1963-1988). Thereafter, comparisons are made between US and USSR crises (after World War II), and among the three regional profiles. The central thrust of the findings from these profiles is clear: they focus attention on the dual characteristics of twentieth century crises, their pervasiveness and diversity. These traits, in turn, make much more difficult the task of constructing a theory that provides a systematic explanation of interstate crisis from onset to termination. Complex reality imposes an intolerable burden on the search for necessary and sufficient conditions of crisis. In positive terms, it leads to a shift in focus, from `necessary and sufficient' to the "most likely" conditions as the most credible path to theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To analyse the state of behavioural oncology research in Africa and outline key considerations for future research. Methods: Five bibliographic databases were searched to identify original English‐language articles published between January 2000 and August 2020. The Behavioural Epidemiology Framework was applied to studies with data/findings from Africa to delineate their current state. Research gaps/opportunities available for behavioural oncology research in Africa were further highlighted. Results: Two hundred eighty‐seven original research with findings from Africa has been published over the last two decades, with the highest contribution arising from Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia and South Africa. Cervical and breast cancers were the most widely investigated. Prominently studied behaviours relate to cancer screening, health literacy, lifestyle, and vaccination. Behavioural oncology literature in Africa is generally in Phases I and III and lacks in measurement studies (<2%) and studies that seek to evaluate behaviour change/health promotion interventions (<6%) or translate them into practice (13.2%). Conclusion: Embracing new and progressive approaches, including methodological/analytical paradigms and implementation science is imperative to advance the frontiers of behavioural oncology research in Africa. This calls for a responsive research approach that can mobilise multidisciplinary/multilevel coalitions, ensuring a research structure that effectively integrates behavioural research and cancer prevention/control in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper describes the excavation, stratigraphy, and lithic assemblages of Middle Stone Age sites from the Omo Kibish Formation (Lower Omo Valley, southwestern Ethiopia). Three sites were excavated, two in Kibish Member I (KHS and AHS) and one at the base of Member III (BNS). The assemblages are dominated by relatively high-quality raw materials procured as pebbles from local gravels. The principal modes of core preparation are radial/centripetal Levallois and discoidal. Retouched tools are rare. Foliate bifaces are present, as are larger tools, such as handaxes, picks, and lanceolates, but these are more common among surface finds than among excavated assemblages. Middle Stone Age assemblages shed light on the adaptations of the earliest-known Homo sapiens populations in Africa. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

As is the case today, both climate variability and population density influenced human behavioural change in the past. The mechanisms underpinning later Pleistocene human behavioural evolution, however, remain contested. Many complex behaviours evolved in Africa, but early evidence for these behaviours varies both spatially and temporally. Scientists have not been able to explain this flickering pattern, which is present even in sites and regions clearly occupied by Homo sapiens. To explore this pattern, here the presence and frequency of evidence for backed stone artefact production are modelled against climate-driven, time-series population density estimates (Timmermann and Friedrich. 2016 Nature 538, 92. (doi:10.1038/nature19365)), in all known African Late Pleistocene archaeological sites (n = 116 sites, n = 409 assemblages, n = 893 dates). In addition, a moving-window, site density population estimate is included at the scale of southern Africa. Backed stone artefacts are argued inmanyarchaeological contexts to have functioned in elaborate technologies like compositeweapons and, in the African Pleistocene, are accepted proxies for cultural complexity. They show a broad but sporadic distribution in Africa, prior to their association with Homo sapiens dispersing into Europe 45-40 ka. Two independent population estimates explain this pattern and potentially implicate the interaction of climate change and demography in the expression of cultural complexity in African Pleistocene Homo sapiens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic showing no signs of abating, resuming neglected tropical disease (NTD) activities, particularly mass drug administration (MDA), is vital. Failure to resume activities will not only enhance the risk of NTD transmission, but will fail to leverage behaviour change messaging on the importance of hand and face washing and improved sanitation—a common strategy for several NTDs that also reduces the risk of COVID-19 spread. This so-called "hybrid approach" will demonstrate best practices for mitigating the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by incorporating physical distancing, use of masks, and frequent hand-washing in the delivery of medicines to endemic communities and support action against the transmission of the virus through water, sanitation and hygiene interventions promoted by NTD programmes. Unless MDA and morbidity management activities resume, achievement of NTD targets as projected in the WHO/NTD Roadmap (2021–2030) will be deferred, the aspirational goal of NTD programmes to enhance universal health coverage jeopardised and the call to 'leave no one behind' a hollow one. We outline what implementing this hybrid approach, which aims to strengthen health systems, and facilitate integration and cross-sector collaboration, can achieve based on work undertaken in several African countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parties are thought to organise democratic legislatures by influencing the voting behaviour of individual legislators. We examine whether parties and party coalitions influence the behaviour of legislators in Kenya. Ethnicity has been seen as the driver of party and electoral politics in Kenya and therefore Kenya provides a hard test of the proposition that political parties organise the legislature in Africa. Analysing roll-call voting in the 11th Parliament (2013–2017), we find that both political parties and coalitions induce structure to roll-call voting, although clientelism and ethnicity continue to influence the behaviour of MPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: WHO/UNAIDS recommended Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision in 2007 based on systematic review of observational studies prior to 1999 and three randomized controlled trials (RCTs). To inform updated WHO guidance, we conducted a systematic review and meta‐analysis of impact of circumcision on the risk of HIV infection among heterosexual men. Methods: Studies in PubMed of HIV incidence and changes in prevalence in heterosexual men by circumcision status were identified. Pooled incidence rate ratios were computed using fixed‐ and random‐effects meta‐analysis and risk of bias was assessed using the ROBINS‐I tool. Results and Discussion: In three RCTs, the pooled incidence ratio was 0.41 (95% CI 0.30 to 0.56), with risk difference 10 (8 to 12) fewer infections per 1000 person‐years (py). Pooled incidence ratios were 0.34 (0.24 to 0.49) in two post‐RCT follow‐up studies, 0.29 (0.19 to 0.43) in men at high HIV risk (five cohorts), 0.48 (0.33 to 0.70) in four community‐based cohorts before circumcision scale‐up, and 0.56 (0.49 to 0.64) (7 [6 to 8] fewer per 1000 py) in six community‐based cohorts during circumcision and antiretroviral treatment scale‐up. Heterogeneity between studies was low except in men at high HIV risk. We estimated 520,000 (425,000 to 605,000) fewer infections occurred in men by end of 2018 from 22.7 million circumcisions performed since 2008 and increasing by 155,000 (125,000 to 180,000) annually if epidemic conditions remain similar. After exclusion of studies with high risk of bias and those conducted outside Africa, pooled incidence ratios were similar. There was no evidence of confounding nor changes in risk behaviour following circumcision. In post‐hoc exploratory analyses we observed a trend of decreasing effectiveness of circumcision in cohorts with lower HIV incidence. Conclusions: Efficacy of medical male circumcision on HIV incidence from randomized controlled trials was supported by effectiveness from observational studies in populations with diverse HIV risk and changing epidemic contexts. Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision remains an important evidence‐based intervention for control of generalized HIV epidemics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) are losing efficacy against pyrethroid-resistant malaria vector populations throughout Africa. Safeguarding bed net efficacy, vital for effective malaria control, requires greater knowledge of mosquito–ITN interactions and how this impacts on the mosquito. Methods: A purpose-built benchtop apparatus with a closed 10 cm cubic chamber (the 'Baited-box') was used to video record behaviour of individual free-flying female Anopheles gambiae during approach and blood-feeding on a human hand through untreated nets and ITNs at close range. Time and duration of defined behavioural events, and knockdown and mortality at 1- and 24-h post-exposure respectively, were recorded for pyrethroid susceptible and resistant mosquitoes. Results: Using three human volunteers differing in relative attractiveness to mosquitoes, 328 mosquitoes were individually tested. There were no significant differences between response rates to ITNs and untreated nets (P > 0.1) or between resistant (Tiassalé) and susceptible (Kisumu) mosquito strains, at untreated nets (P = 0.39) or PermaNet 2.0 (P = 1). The sequence of behavioural events from host-seeking to completion of blood-feeding was consistent in all tests but duration and start time of events involving net contact were reduced or delayed respectively with ITNs. Blood-feeding durations at untreated nets (means from 4.25 to 8.47 min (95% confidence interval (CI) = 3.39–9.89) at 3 human volunteers) were reduced by 37–50% at PermaNet 2.0, in susceptible (mean 2.59–4.72 min, 95% CI = 1.54–5.5, P = < 0.05) and resistant (mean 4.20 min, 95% CI = 3.42–4.97, P = 0.01) strains. Total accumulated net contact was approximately 50% lower at PermaNet and Olyset ITNs (P < 0.0001) in susceptible (two of the three volunteers) and resistant mosquitoes. Times prior to first net contact were similar at untreated nets and ITNs (P > 0.2), and neither ITN type showed detectable spatial repellency. After initial contact, blood-feeding commenced later at Olyset (mean 2.76 min, 95% CI = 1.74–3.76, P = 0.0009) and PermaNet (mean 2.4 min, 95% CI = 1.52–3.33, P = 0.0058) than untreated netting (mean 0.68 min, 95% CI = 0.42–0.94). Conclusions: The baited box offers a simple method for detailed characterization of mosquito behavioural responses to insecticidal nets, for comparing entomological modes of action between nets and for defining the behavioural responses of particular mosquito strains or populations. The device has potential as a screening assay in the search for novel net treatments and for investigations into behavioural resistance mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scenario development helps people think about a broad variety of possible futures; however, the global environmental change community has thus far developed few positive scenarios for the future of the planet and humanity. Those that have been developed tend to focus on the role of a few common, large-scale external drivers, such as technology or environmental policy, even though pathways of positive change are often driven by surprising or bottom-up initiatives that most scenarios assume are unchanging. We describe an approach, pioneered in Southern Africa and tested here in a new context in Northern Europe, to developing scenarios using existing bottom-up transformative initiatives to examine plausible transitions towards positive, sustainable futures. By starting from existing, but marginal initiatives, as well as current trends, we were able to identify system characteristics that may play a key role in sustainability transitions (e.g., gender issues, inequity, governance, behavioral change) that are currently under-explored in global environmental scenarios. We suggest that this approach could be applied in other places to experiment further with the methodology and its potential applications, and to explore what transitions to desirables futures might be like in different places. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the electronic information (e-information) seeking behaviour of preservice teachers in an Open and Distance Learning (ODL) programme. E-library, E-classroom, E-journals and other E-Learning platforms are germane to meeting the demand of the 21st century teaching and learning engagement in both conventional and distance learning based institutions. Survey research design was employed to carry out the study. Two hundred and thirty eighty (238) undergraduate students studying to obtain Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) by distance were sampled from Ibadan Study Centre of the institution. The results from the survey revealed that electronic resources in different forms like radio, e-journals, e-books, and CD-ROM, among others, are available and accessible to the pre-service teacher trainees by distance. However, limited internet connectivity and inadequate access to electricity were shown as major factors constraining most of the respondents from accessing and utilizing the available electronic resources. The study further revealed that most of the pre-service teacher trainees sampled did not have sufficient I.T. knowledge and competence in accessing the available electronic resources and prefer contracting most of their online assignments out to cybercafé operators and peers with better IT skills. The study, therefore, recommended, among others, compulsory face-to-face ICT training on the techniques of accessing and using electronic resources for first year students undergoing initial teacher education programme by distance for them to acquire necessary skills and competencies required to access and use electronic resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This short report exploits a unique opportunity to investigate the implications of response bias in survey questions about voter turnout and vote choice in new democracies. We analyze data from a field experiment in Benin, where we gathered official election results and panel survey data representative at the village level, allowing us to directly compare average outcomes across both measurement instruments in a large number of units. We show that survey respondents consistently overreport turning out to vote and voting for the incumbent, and that the bias is large and worse in contexts where question sensitivity is higher. This has important implications for the inferences we draw about an experimental treatment, indicating that the response bias we identify is correlated with treatment. Although the results using the survey data suggest that the treatment had the hypothesized impact, they are also consistent with social desirability bias. By contrast, the administrative data lead to the conclusion that the treatment had no effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Some studies in developing countries have shown that infant mortality is highly associated with maternal education, implying that maternal education might play an important role in the reduction of infant mortality. However, other research has shown that lower levels of maternal education does not have any significant contribution to infant survival. In this systematic review, we focus on the effect of different levels of maternal education on infant mortality in Ethiopia. Methods: MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, Scopus, and Maternity and Infant Care databases were searched between November 15, 2017 and February 20, 2018. All articles published until February 20, 2018 were included in the study. The data extraction was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA 2009) guidelines. An I2 test was used to assess heterogeneity and a funnel plot was used to check publication bias. Findings: We retrieved 441 records after removing duplications. During screening, 31 articles were fully accessed for data extraction. Finally, five articles were included for analysis. The overall pooled estimate indicated that attending primary education was associated with a 28% reduction in the odds of infant mortality compared to those infants born to mothers who were illiterate, OR: 0.72 (95% CI = 0.66, 0.78). Another pooled estimate indicated that attending secondary education and above was associated with a 45% reduction in the odds of infant mortality compared to those infants born to mothers who were illiterate, OR: 0.55 (95% CI = 0.47, 0.64). Conclusion: From this study, understanding the long-term impact of maternal education may contribute to reduce infant mortality. Therefore, policy makers should give more attention in promoting the role of women through removing institutional and cultural barriers, which hinder women from access to education in order to reduce infant mortality in Ethiopia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Research on contraceptive behaviour changes over time in Uganda is scarce, yet it has among the highest fertility and maternal mortality rates of any country in the East African region. Understanding temporal patterns of contraceptive use for both women and men is vital in evaluating the effectiveness of family planning interventions and strategies, and identifying those with the most unmet need. Using repeated nationally representative cross-sectional samples, this study charts the changes in Uganda’s population-based contraceptive use over recent years. Methods: Five Demographic and Health Survey datasets for Uganda over 21 years, from 1995 to 2016, were sourced and interrogated. Eligible participants included all women aged 15–49 years and men aged 15–54 years. Responses to questions on modern and any (modern or traditional) contraceptive use were analysed. Stratified by gender, weighted regression analyses were employed to detect change over time. The patterns associated with key demographic variables were also investigated. Results: Overall, 50,027 women and 14,092 men were included within the study. In 2016, 30.3% of women and 39.9% of men were using any contraceptive method, a significant non-linear increase from 13.4% of women and 20.3% of men in 1995. Furthermore, 27.3% of women and 35.9% of men were using modern contraceptive methods in 2016, an increase from 7.4% of women and 10.4% of men in 1995. All considered demographic variables were significantly associated with contraceptive use for both women and men (all P<0.001); and for women, all variables differentially changed over time (all P<0.001). Conclusion: This study showed a significant increase and dynamism across key demographic variables in contraceptive uptake by both women and men. Sustained family planning programs and interventions have successfully resulted in behaviour change across the Ugandan population. However, continued efforts are needed to further reduce Uganda’s relatively high fertility and associated maternal mortality rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The incursion into Africa by Europe in the 19th Century was formally ratified by the 1884-85 Berlin Conference. The reason for Europe to decide in venturing into the South was basically centered on the need for natural resources and to be later realized deep yearnings for trade and cooperation with Africa. But the reverse was the case with the supposedly cooperation with Africa initiative in a conference that was strangely not to have Africa diplomatically represented and with resolutions which instead of enabling this proper partnership with Africa became a master -- slave empire-type of relations. This master-slave relation is also seen in many aspects even in trade and is known also to have changed the economic behavior of African countries. An unequal relationship between the north and its colonies is revealed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural resources in and around protected areas in many countries in Africa are under intense pressure as a result of illegal behaviour, such as fishing, hunting and logging. A better understanding of local people's perceptions of the nature of illegal behaviour and the relevance of conservation actions would be useful in informing conservation decisions. We gathered information on the attitudes and perceptions of communities in the vicinity of Ugalla Game Reserve in western Tanzania regarding illegal behaviour and the effectiveness of conservation practices, using household surveys, key informants, and focus groups. We found that local people use the Reserve illegally, especially for hunting (28 ± SE 6%) and logging (20 ± SE 5%). We explored behaviours that are problematic for conservation in the partially protected areas around Ugalla. Local communities reported feeling isolated, harassed and intimidated by approaches used to protect Ugalla. They were angered by the conservation of Ugalla as a trophy hunting site for foreigners, and the excessive force and beatings used by game rangers to keep them away from the Reserve. Improving local livelihoods (17%), participatory conservation (16%), and giving people land for agricultural activities (16%) were among the ways that local communities felt would reduce illegal activities. Our findings suggest the need for conservation measures to benefit local communities around Ugalla transparently and equitably. Outreach programmes would help to raise conservation awareness and attract positive attitudes towards conservation. To encourage local support for conservation, we also suggest that conservation authorities create and maintain good relations with people living near the Reserve. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To accelerate malaria elimination in areas where core interventions such as insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) are already widely used, it is crucial to consider additional factors associated with persistent transmission. Qualitative data on human behaviours and perceptions regarding malaria risk was triangulated with quantitative data on Anopheles mosquito bites occurring indoors and outdoors in south-eastern Tanzania communities where ITNS are already used but lower level malaria transmission persists. Each night (18:00h-07:00h), trained residents recorded human activities indoors, in peri-domestic outdoor areas, and in communal gatherings. Host-seeking mosquitoes were repeatedly collected indoors and outdoors hourly, using miniaturized exposure-free double net traps (DN-Mini) occupied by volunteers. In-depth interviews were conducted with household representatives to explore perceptions on persistent malaria and its control. Higher proportions of people stayed outdoors than indoors in early-evening and early-morning hours, resulting in higher exposures outdoors than indoors during these times. However, exposure during late-night hours (22:00h–05:00h) occurred mostly indoors. Some of the popular activities that kept people outdoors included cooking, eating, relaxing and playing. All households had at least one bed net, and 83.9% of people had access to ITNs. Average ITN use was 96.3%, preventing most indoor exposure. Participants recorgnized the importance of ITNs but also noted that the nets were not perfect. No complementary interventions were reported being used widely. Most people believed transmission happens after midnight. We conclude that insecticide-treated nets, where properly used, can still prevent most indoor exposures, but significant risk continues unabated before bedtime, outdoors and at communal gatherings. Such exposure is greatest for rural and low-income households. There is therefore an urgent need for complementary interventions, particularly those targeting outdoor-biting and are applicable for all people including the marginalised populations such as migratory farmers and fishermen. Besides, the differences in community understanding of ongoing transmission, and feedback on imperfections of ITNs should be considered when updating malaria-related communication and interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commercial captive breeding and trade in body parts of threatened wild carnivores is an issue of significant concern to conservation scientists and policy-makers. Following a 2016 decision by Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, South Africa must establish an annual export quota for lion skeletons from captive sources, such that threats to wild lions are mitigated. As input to the quota-setting process, South Africa’s Scientific Authority initiated interdisciplinary collaborative research on the captive lion industry and its potential links to wild lion conservation. A National Captive Lion Survey was conducted as one of the inputs to this research; the survey was launched in August 2017 and completed in May 2018. The structured semi-quantitative questionnaire elicited 117 usable responses, representing a substantial proportion of the industry. The survey results clearly illustrate the impact of a USA suspension on trophy imports from captive-bred South African lions, which affected 82% of respondents and economically destabilised the industry. Respondents are adapting in various ways, with many euthanizing lions and becoming increasingly reliant on income from skeleton export sales. With rising consumer demand for lion body parts, notably skulls, the export quota presents a further challenge to the industry, regulators and conservationists alike, with 52% of respondents indicating they would adapt by seeking ‘alternative markets’ for lion bones if the export quota allocation restricted their business. Recognizing that trade policy toward large carnivores represents a ‘wicked problem’, we anticipate that these results will inform future deliberations, which must nonetheless also be informed by challenging inclusive engagements with all relevant stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing modern contraceptive use is important for improving maternal and child health and achieving economic growth and development goals. However, pervasive high unmet need for modern contraceptives in sub-Saharan Africa warrants new understandings of the drivers of modern contraceptive use. A deviance approach (i.e., examining how women’s experiences/characteristics differ from other women in their community) provides an innovative framework for capturing heterogeneity among women in a community. This framework can inform public health programming by both exploring how women avoid adverse health outcomes and understanding the needs of harder-to-reach populations who may experience health risks, despite living in communities where others do not experience vulnerability. Using data from Demographic and Health Surveys from 29 sub-Saharan African countries, we examine how a woman’s deviation from community norms around socioeconomic characteristics and gender and fertility norms and behaviors is associated with modern contraceptive use. Random-effects logistic regression models were fitted for each country to examine relationships between modern contraceptive use and deviance. Some deviance factors were associated with modern contraceptive use in only a few countries, while others were significant across many countries. Cross-country consistency in the direction of the relationship between deviance and modern contraceptive use varied by the specific deviance factor, with some relationships being consistent across countries, and other relationships being more varied. For example, having more education than the community norm was associated with increased modern contraceptive use across countries; however, marrying older than other women in the community was associated with an increase in modern contraceptive use in some countries and a decrease in others. More work is needed to understand the role of deviance on modern contraceptive use; however, this study suggests that using context-specific deviance approaches may be important for further elucidating experiences of modern contraceptive use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a zoonotic phlebovirus that can be transmitted to humans or livestock by mosquitoes or through direct contact with contaminated bodily fluids and tissues. Exposure to bodily fluids and tissues varies by types of behaviors engaged for occupational tasks, homestead responsibilities, or use in dietary or therapeutic capacities. While previous studies have included milk exposures in their analyses, their primary focus on livestock exposures has been on animal handling, breeding, and slaughter. We analyzed data from multiple field surveys in Kenya with the aim of associating RVFV infection to raw milk exposures from common animal species. Of those with evidence of prior RVFV infection by serology (n = 267), 77.2% engaged in milking livestock compared to 32.0% for 3,956 co-local seronegative individuals (p < 0.001), and 86.5% of seropositive individuals consumed raw milk compared to 33.4% seronegative individuals (p < 0.001). Individuals who milked and also consumed raw milk had greater odds of RVFV exposure than individuals whose only contact to raw milk was through milking. Increased risks were associated with exposure to milk sourced from cows (p < 0.001), sheep (p < 0.001), and goats (p < 0.001), but not camels (p = 0.98 for consuming, p = 0.21 for milking). Our data suggest that exposure to raw milk may contribute to a significant number of cases of RVFV, especially during outbreaks and in endemic areas, and that some animal species may be associated with a higher risk for RVFV exposure. Livestock trade is regulated to limit RVFV spread from endemic areas, yet further interventions designed to fully understand the risk of RVFV exposure from raw milk are imperative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 1994, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) included “culture-bound syndromes” in its classification of psychiatric disorders and associated them with disease processes that manifest in behavioural or thought disorders that develop within a given cultural context. This study examines the definitions, explanatory models, signs and symptoms, and healthcare-seeking behaviours common to Fang culture-bound syndromes (i.e., kong, eluma, witchcraft, mibili, mikug, and nsamadalu). The Fang ethnic group is the majority ethnic group in Equatorial Guinea. From September 2012 to January 2013, 45 key Fang informants were selected, including community leaders, tribal elders, healthcare workers, traditional healers, and non-Catholic pastors in 39 of 724 Fang tribal villages in 6 of 13 districts in the mainland region of Equatorial Guinea. An ethnographic approach with an emic-etic perspective was employed. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews, participant observation and a questionnaire that included DHS6 key indicators. Interviews were designed based on the Cultural Formulation form in the DSM-5 and explored the definition of Fang cultural syndromes, symptoms, cultural perceptions of cause, and current help-seeking. Participants defined “Fang culture-bound syndromes" as those diseases that cannot be cured, treated, or diagnosed by science. Such syndromes present with the same signs and symptoms as diseases identified by Western medicine. However, they arise because of the actions of enemies, because of the actions of spirits or ancestors, as punishments for disregarding the law of God, because of the violation of sexual or dietary taboos, or because of the violation of a Fang rite of passage, the dzas, which is celebrated at birth. Six Fang culture-bound syndromes were included in the study: 1) Eluma, a disease that is targeted at the victim out of envy and starts out with sharp, intense, focussed pain and aggressiveness; 2) Witchcraft, characterized by isolation from the outside, socially maladaptive behaviour, and the use of hallucinogenic substances; 3) Kong, which is common among the wealthy class and manifests as a disconnection from the environment and a lack of vital energy; 4) Mibili, a possession by evil spirits that manifests through visual and auditory hallucinations; 5) Mikug, which appears after a person has had contact with human bones in a ritual; and 6) Nsamadalu, which emerges after a traumatic process caused by violating traditions through having sexual relations with one’s sister or brother. The therapeutic resources of choice for addressing Fang culture-bound syndromes were traditional Fang medicine and the religious practices of the Bethany and Pentecostal churches, among others. Among African ethnic groups, symbolism, the weight of tradition, and the principle of chance in health and disease are underlying factors in the presentation of certain diseases, which in ethno-psychiatry are now referred to as culture-bound syndromes. In this study, traditional healers, elders, healthcare professionals, religious figures, and leaders of the Fang community in Equatorial Guinea referred to six such cultural syndromes: eluma, witchcraft, kong, mibili, mikug, and nsamadalu. In the absence of a multidisciplinary approach to mental illness in the country, the Fang ethnic group seeks healthcare for culture-bound syndromes from traditional healing and religious rites in the Evangelical faiths. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Childhood traumas, in the form of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse and neglect, are globally widespread and highly prevalent, and associated with a range of subsequent poor health outcomes. This study sought to understand the relationship between physical, sexual and emotional childhood abuse and subsequent HIV-risk behaviours amongst young people (18–30) living in urban informal settlements in Durban, South Africa. Data came from self-completed questionnaires amongst 680 women and 677 men comprising the baseline of the Stepping Stones and Creating Futures intervention trial. Men and women were analysed separately. Logistic regression models assessed the relationship between six HIV-risk behaviours and four measures of trauma: the form of trauma, the severity of each trauma, the range of traumas, and overall severity of childhood trauma. Childhood traumas were incredibly prevalent in this population. All childhood traumas were associated with a range of HIV-risk behaviours. This was for the ever/never trauma, as well as the severity of each type of trauma, the range of trauma, and overall severity of childhood trauma. Despite the wider harsh contexts of urban informal settlements, childhood traumas still play a significant role in shaping subsequent HIV-risk behaviours amongst young people. Interventions to reduce childhood traumas for populations in informal settlements need to be developed. In addition, trauma focused therapies need to be considered as part of wider HIV-prevention interventions for young adults. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the recognized links between food insecurity, poverty, and the risk of HIV/AIDS, few randomized trials have evaluated the impact of livelihood interventions on HIV risk behaviors. The current study draws upon data collected from a qualitative process evaluation that was embedded into a pilot randomized controlled trial that tested whether a multisectoral agricultural intervention (Shamba Maisha) affected the HIV-related health of HIV-positive adults in rural Kenya. In the current study, we drew upon longitudinal, in-depth interviews with 45 intervention participants and nine control participants (N = 54) in order to examine the impacts of the intervention on gendered power and sexual risk reduction among both women and men. Female and male participants in the intervention described positive changes in sexual practices and gendered power dynamics as a result of intervention participation. Changes included reduced sexual risk behaviors, improved gender-related power dynamics, and enhanced quality of intimate relationships. These findings illuminate how a multisectoral agricultural intervention may affect inequitable gender relations and secondary transmission risk. Further research is needed to explore how to best leverage agricultural interventions to address the important intersections between poverty and inequitable gender relations that shape HIV risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) is associated with early evidence for symbolic material culture and complex technological innovations. However, one of the most visible aspects of MSA technologies are unretouched triangular stone points that appear in the archaeological record as early as 500,000 years ago in Africa and persist throughout the MSA. How these tools were being used and discarded across a changing Pleistocene landscape can provide insight into how MSA populations prioritized technological and foraging decisions. Creating inferential links between experimental and archaeological tool use helps to establish prehistoric tool function, but is complicated by the overlaying of post-depositional damage onto behaviorally worn tools. Taphonomic damage patterning can provide insight into site formation history, but may preclude behavioral interpretations of tool function. Here, multiple experimental processes that form edge damage on unretouched lithic points from taphonomic and behavioral processes are presented. These provide experimental distributions of wear on tool edges from known processes that are then quantitatively compared to the archaeological patterning of stone point edge damage from three MSA lithic assemblages—Kathu Pan 1, Pinnacle Point Cave 13B, and Die Kelders Cave 1. By using a model-fitting approach, the results presented here provide evidence for variable MSA behavioral strategies of stone point utilization on the landscape consistent with armature tips at KP1, and cutting tools at PP13B and DK1, as well as damage contributions from post-depositional sources across assemblages. This study provides a method with which landscape-scale questions of early modern human tool-use and site-use can be addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background To date no semiochemicals affecting the pre-oviposition behaviour of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae sensu lato have been described. Water vapour must be the major chemical signal emanating from a potential larval habitat, and although one might expect that gravid An. gambiae s.l. detect and respond to water vapour in their search for an aquatic habitat, this has never been experimentally confirmed for this species. This study aimed to investigate the role of relative humidity or water vapour as a general cue for inducing gravid An. gambiae sensu stricto to make orientated movements towards the source. Methods Three experiments were carried out with insectary-reared An. gambiae s.s. One with unfed females and two with gravid females during their peak oviposition time in the early evening. First, unfed females and gravid females were tested separately in still air where a humidity difference was established between opposite ends of a WHO bioassay tube and mosquitoes released individually in the centre of the tube. Movement of mosquitoes to either low or high humidity was recorded. Additionally, gravid mosquitoes were released into a larger air-flow olfactometer and responses measured towards collection chambers that contained cups filled with water or empty cups. Results Unfed females equally dispersed in the small bioassay tubes to areas of high and low humidity (mean 50% (95% confidence interval (CI) 38-62%). In contrast, gravid females were 2.4 times (95% CI 1.3-4.7) more likely to move towards high humidity than unfed females. The results were even more pronounced in the airflow olfactometer. Gravid females were 10.6 times (95% CI 5.4-20.8) more likely to enter the chamber with water than a dry chamber. Conclusions Water vapour is a strong pre-oviposition attractant to gravid An. gambiae s.s. in still and moving air and is likely to be a general cue used by mosquitoes for locating aquatic habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Human tuberculosis (TB) in West Africa is not only caused by M. tuberculosis but also by bacteria of the two lineages of M. africanum. For instance, in The Gambia, 40% of TB is due to infections with M. africanum West African 2. This bacterial lineage is associated with HIV infection, reduced ESAT-6 immunogenicity and slower progression to active disease. Although these characteristics suggest an attenuated phenotype of M. africanum, no underlying mechanism has been described. From the first descriptions of M. africanum in the literature in 1969, the time to a positive culture of M. africanum on solid medium was known to be longer than the time to a positive culture of M. tuberculosis. However, the delayed growth of M. africanum, which may correlate with the less virulent phenotype in the human host, has not previously been studied in detail. Methodology/Principal Findings: We compared the growth rates of M. tuberculosis and M. africanum isolates from The Gambia in two liquid culture systems. M. africanum grows significantly slower than M. tuberculosis, not only when grown directly from sputa, but also in growth experiments under defined laboratory conditions. We also sequenced four M. africanum isolates and compared their whole genomes with the published M. tuberculosis H37Rv genome. M. africanum strains have several non-synonymous SNPs or frameshift mutations in genes that were previously associated with growth-attenuation. M. africanum strains also have a higher mutation frequency in genes crucial for transport of sulphur, ions and lipids/fatty acids across the cell membrane into the bacterial cell. Surprisingly, 5 of 7 operons, recently described as essential for intracellular survival of H37Rv in the host macrophage, showed at least one non-synonymously mutated gene in M. africanum. Conclusions/Significance: The altered growth behaviour of M. africanum might indicate a different survival strategy within host cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study which aims at assessing visual and olfactory associative learning in Anopheles (An.) gambiae, the malaria causing vector in Africa. In the study, various experiments were conducted and behavioral assays were developed to understand and describe the occurrence and processes of associative learning in An. gambiae. It shows high associative visual and olfactory learning in female An. gambiae in host finding and concludes knowledge gap in the mosquito's ecology.

In this review, I explore the effects of both social organization and the physical environment, specifically habitat complexity, on the brains and behavior of highly visual African cichlid fishes, drawing on examples from primates and birds where appropriate. In closely related fishes from the monophyletic Ectodinii clade of Lake Tanganyika, both forces influence cichlid brains and behavior. Considering social influences first, visual acuity differs with respect to social organization (monogamy versus polygyny). Both the telencephalon and amygdalar homologue, area Dm, are larger in monogamous species. Monogamous species are found to have more vasotocin-immunoreactive cells in the preoptic area of the brain. Habitat complexity also influences brain and behavior in these fishes. Total brain size, telencephalic and cerebellar size are positively correlated with habitat complexity. Visual acuity and spatial memory are enhanced in cichlids living in more complex environments. However habitat complexity and social forces affect cichlid brains differently. Taken together, our field data and plasticity data suggest that some of the species-specific neural effects of habitat complexity could be the consequence of the corresponding social correlates. Environmental forces, however, exert a broader effect on brain structures than social ones do, suggesting allometric expansion of the brain structures in concert with brain size and/or co-evolution of these structures [Current Zoology 56 (1): 144–156 2010]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More complex brains and behaviors have arisen repeatedly throughout both vertebrate and invertebrate evolution. The challenge is to tease apart the forces underlying such change. In this review, I show how habitat complexity influences both brain and behavior in African cichlid fishes, drawing on examples from primates and birds where appropriate. These species groups share a number of similarities. They exhibit a considerable range of brain to body weight within their group. Often highly visual, the species show a diversity of habitat types, social systems, and cognitive abilities. Phylogenies are well established. In closely-related cichlid fishes from the monophyletic Ectodine clade of Lake Tanganyika, habitat complexity is directly correlated with social variables, including species richness, diversity, and abundance. Total brain size, telencephalic and cerebellar size are positively correlated with habitat complexity. Visual acuity and spatial memory are also enhanced in cichlids living in more complex environments. I speculate that species-specific neural effects of environmental complexity could be the consequence of the corresponding social changes. However, environmental and social forces affect brains differently. Environmental forces exert a broader effect on brain structures than social ones, suggesting either allometric expansion of the brain structures in concert with brain size and/or co-evolution of these structures. To advance our understanding of the mechanism by which habitat complexity affects brain and behavior will require the use of closely-related species, quantification of complexity, hypothesis testing restricting analysis to a single variable and path analyses to explore the order of importance of such variables. We will also need new experimental paradigms exploring the cognitive and survival value of brain and brain structure changes both in the laboratory and in the wild. Copyright © 2008 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indoor air pollution is responsible for the deaths and illness of millions of young children in developing countries. This study investigated the acceptability (willingness to try) and feasibility (ability to perform) of four indoor air pollution reduction behaviors (improve stove maintenance practices, child location practices, ventilation practices and reduce the duration of solid fuel burning). The study further aimed to identify the motivations for and barriers against modifying the behaviors, the perceived impact of the behaviors on children's respiratory health, and families intention to continue with the behaviors. Thirty families in a rural village of South Africa tried out one or more of the behaviors over a 4-week trial period during winter 2002. Improving stove maintenance and reducing the duration of solid fuel burning proved to be very difficult for most families. It is recommended that the main intervention should focus on improving child location and ventilation practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigates the effect of density on feeding and aggressive behavior in juvenile African catfish, Clarias gariepinus. Enhanced feeding activity with an increase in fish density and reduced level of aggression; Explanation for the improved growth and yield under high-density farming conditions; Suggestion that African catfish be reared at densities above those at which shoaling is initiated.

The article cites a study which focuses on the race attitudes of a dominated group. Dominative behaviour is delined as the technique of responding to others by which a person resists differences, resists change and growth. This study is concerned exclusively with the professional African. In spite of the widely varying backgrounds revealed in this study, the Africans have all converged upon the same goal. The African is not without considerable psychological resources of his own when called upon to deal with the situation created for him by the dominative behaviour of the European. His awareness of group-belongingness makes it possible for him as an individual to confront the situation secure in the knowledge that his group provides him with a ground on which he can take his stand. His awareness of group-apartness enables him to bring into play all those powerful social attitudes that maintain the distinct identity of the in-group while challenging the pretensions of the out-group. His awareness of a group heritage and a group tradition, however over-evaluated, sentimentalized and distorted they may be, provides him with a set of cultural values in which he can take a pride and which he does not owe to the European.