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Because of concerns about global climate change, possible global oil depletion, and because of potential benefits for both urban air pollution and rural employment and industry, many countries both in and out of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), are promoting liquid biofuels as a replacement for oil-based transport fuels, and global output is rising steadily. In fact, bioenergy use in general is promoted, and is expected to play a major role in climate change mitigation. But bioenergy use in general faces competition for resources such as land, water and fertiliser from the two other general biomass uses, food production and biomaterials. Ethically, food production should take precedence over the other two uses (and at present all bioliquids are made from foodstuffs), and using biomass for biomaterials will in many situations reduce greenhouse gas emissions more than using the same amount of biomass for energy. Where a given amount of biomass is available for transport energy use, it will usually produce more greenhouse gas reductions per vehicle-km if used to produce electricity rather than liquid biofuels. Finally, there is signs that internal combustion engine vehicles could be phased out in the coming decades. If so, liquid biofuels will be phased out along with existing oil-based transport fuels. In conclusion, except for specialist uses, liquid biofuels do not appear to have a long-term future.

The first EU Renewable Energy Directive (RED) served as an effective push for world-wide research efforts on biofuels and bioliquids, i.e. liquid fuels for energy purposes other than for transport, including electricity, heating, and cooling, which are produced from biomass. In December 2018 the new RED II was published in the Official Journal of the European Union. Therefore, it is now the right time to provide a comprehensive overview of achievements and practices that were developed within the current perspective. To comply with this objective, the present study focuses on a comprehensive and systematic technical evaluation of all key aspects of the different distributed energy generation pathways using bioliquids in reciprocating engines and micro gas turbines that were overseen by these EU actions. Methodologically, the study originates from the analyses of feedstock and fuel processing technologies, which decisively influence fuel properties. The study systematically and holistically highlights the utilisation of these bioliquids in terms of fuel property specific challenges, required engine adaptations, and equipment durability, culminating in analyses of engine performance and emissions. In addition, innovative proposals and future opportunities for further technical improvements in the whole production-consumption cycle are presented, thus serving as a guideline for upcoming research and development activities in the fast-growing area of bioliquids. Additionally, the paper systematically addresses opportunities for the utilisation of waste streams, emerging from the ever increasing circular use of materials and resources. With this, the present review provides the sorely needed link between past efforts, oriented towards the exploitation of bio-based resources for power generation, and the very recent zero-waste oriented society that will require a realistic exploitation plan for residuals originating from intensive material looping.

The direct utilization of first-generation (coal, woody materials) fossil fuel resources as well as the rapid fluctuations in crude oil prices will lead to the consciousness of environmental problems, so the scientists as well as many researchers focused on the necessity of the liquid biofuels (bioethanol or biobutanol) from various feedstocks. One approach, in this way, some researchers identified, is the generation of clean renewable biofuels or bio-oils or bioliquids from different types of solid lignocellulosic biomass materials, such as forest wood, agricultural, and municipal solid wastes, because they have high potential as well as are valuable substitutes for achieving the conventional (gasoline) fuel security. Generally, the structural framework of any lignocellulosic biomass material comprises 30%–50% cellulose, 15%–35% hemicellulose, and 10%–20% lignin. Initially, the solid biomass materials are crumpled down into small ingredients and followed by hydrolysis to produce simple fermentable reducing sugar moieties, which upon fermentation form biofuels (bioethanol and biobutanol). The obtained biobutanol shows tremendously superior fuel properties as compared to bioethanol. Furthermore, the utilization of biodiesel or bioethanol needs some significant modifications in automobile engine parts, but the use of biobutanol does not require any such modifications in engines, because biobutanol shows superior unique fuel properties as well as is easily blended in any ratio with petrol- or petroleum-based gasoline. The major obstacle for the production of biobutanol from lignocellulosic biomass materials is the efficient pretreatments of biomass followed by enzymatic hydrolysis processes. In this regard an outlook on the major conversion technologies for producing biobutanol from various lignocellulosic biomass feedstocks by focusing on their typical performances has been established along with their applications. The effective pretreatment processes for enhancing the relevant techniques, the genetically engineered and modified acetone, butanol, and ethanol fermentation processes are also evaluated. The different routes, say chemical and microbial fermentation for the production of biobutanol, are generally discussed.

The development of renewable energy sources (RES) is considered to be a key instrument in addressing climate change. However, different RES have different potential and economic feasibility depending on country-specific conditions and mitigation ambitions. Understanding the relative importance of each RES could help policymakers focus their efforts on the most promising options. In this paper, we focus on Ukraine and explore the potential of biomass use under two mitigation scenarios – with 68% and 83% of greenhouse gas emissions reduction in 2050 relative to the 2010 level. First, using the TIMES-Ukraine energy system model, we show that biomass would play a major role in the future climate mitigation. If constrained at the baseline scenario level (due to political or other reasons), mitigation costs would be substantially higher – by 14.0–19.6 B € or 10.8–14.3 €/tCO2-eq., over the 2020–2050 time frame. Second, we quantify the importance of each biomass source. We show that woody biomass and bioliquids are the most important biofuels under the high-ambition climate scenario, while biowaste and bioliquids play a key role in the lower ambition pathway. Finally, we analyse the current policy environment in the context of future biomass development and conclude with a set of policy recommendations toward the realization of the biomass potential in Ukraine. We believe that findings presented in the paper would be relevant not only for supporting the decision-making process in Ukraine, but could also provide useful insights for other countries with similar conditions.

Increased public concerns and stricter regulatory frameworks promote the role of bioliquids (liquid fuel for energy purposes other than for transport, including electricity and heating and cooling, produced from biomass). This is a driving force for development and employment of micro-gas turbines (MGTs) due to their ability to combust bioliquids with less favorable properties in a decentralized manner. Gas turbines are characterized by relatively high combustion efficiency at relatively low concentrations of harmful emissions, relatively high effective efficiency and durability when utilizing a common portfolio of gas turbine approved fuels. It is thus desired to preserve these advantages of gas turbines also while burning bioliquids and further relying on their scalability that is crucial to efficient support of decentralized energy production at small scales. To support these objectives, MGT technology needs to allow for utilization of bioliquids with much wider spectrum of physical and chemical properties compared to common commercially available MGTs in a single MGT-based plant. In this view, the present study is providing the first thorough overview of challenges and solutions encountered by researchers across the wide area of bioliquids in MGTs.

The promotion of biofuels in the EU aims at the substitution of fossil fuels and the reduction of carbon emissions. Therefore, the Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC obliges EU Member States to make sure that until 2020 in transport at least 10% of the final energy consumption is derived from renewable sources or that at least a 6% greenhouse gas emission reduction is achieved. In order to safeguard that the production of biomass does not result in negative impacts on greenhouse gas stocks or on biodiversity, the promotion of biofuels and bioliquids is accompanied by sustainability requirements.

This paper aimed at studying the current state of development of liquid biofuels’ world market. The authors considered the theoretical bases of liquid biofuels production, their types, disadvantages and advantages. The world experience of introducing stimulation mechanisms of development and their influence on the sectors’ growth is analyzed. In this study’s frame, there is outlined the world leaders in the production of liquid biofuels. The findings represent the peculiarities of state regulation in implementing mandates for creating transport fuels with bioliquids. The current state of investment in the production of liquid biofuels was investigated. The obtained results contribute to the prospects for promoting world production of liquid biofuels to achieve the Paris Agreement’s goals by 2030 under the sustainable development scenario.

A reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as well as an increase in the share of renewable energy are the main objectives of EU energy policy. In Poland, biofuels play an important role in the structure of obtaining energy from renewable sources. In the case of biofuels obtained from agricultural raw materials, one of the significant components of emissions generated in their full life cycle is emissions from the cultivation stage. The aim of the study is to estimate and recognize the structure of GHG emission from biomass production in selected farms in Poland. For this purpose, the methodology that was recommended by the Polish certification system of sustainable biofuels and bioliquids production, as approved by the European Commission, was used. The calculated emission values vary between 41.5 kg CO2eq/t and 147.2 kg CO2eq/t dry matter. The highest average emissions were obtained for wheat (103.6 kg CO2eq/t), followed by maize (100.5 kg CO2eq/t), triticale (95.4 kg CO2eq/t), and rye (72.5 kg CO2eq/t). The greatest impact on the total GHG emissions from biomass production is caused by field emissions of nitrous oxide and emissions from the production and transport of fertilizers and agrochemicals. Emissions that were generated at the stage of production, storage, and transport of seeds and during the use of fuels in agricultural and forestry machinery have a significantly smaller share in the total GHG emissions from biomass production.

At present, coal is considered one of the main components for the production of cheap, high-energy and environmentally attractive slurry fuels. The latter can be produced on the basis of low-grade coal dust or coal processing wastes. Thus, coal-water slurries and coal-water slurries containing petrochemicals are produced. The involvement of coal and oil processing wastes expands the scope of raw materials, reduces the fuel costs from traditional energy sources and modifies the main economic characteristics of power plant performance. However, it also increases the impact of coal-fired thermal power stations on the environment. In the last 30–50 years, many efforts have been made to decrease the negative impact of human industrial activity on climate. Involving plant-based components in the process of energy generation to save energy and material resources looks very promising nowadays. This research studies the influence of adding typical bioliquids (bioethanol, turpentine, glycerol) on the concentration of anthropogenic emissions from coal-water slurry combustion. Relative mass concentrations of bioliquids varied in a small range below 20%. We focused on the concentration of the most hazardous sulfur and nitrogen oxides from the combustion of typical filter cakes, as well as plant-containing slurries. It was established that the concentration of sulfur oxides can be decreased (as compared to coal) by 75%, whereas that of nitrogen oxides by almost 30%. Using a generalizing criteria expression, we illustrated the main benefits of adding bioliquids to slurry fuels in comparison with coal. Adding 20% of glycerol was found to provide maximum advantages.

While biofuel is one of the ways through which dependency on fossil fuels can be reduced, it is controversial, not least because it may entail a conflict between food production and the rights of local communities on the one hand, and subsidised access to renewable, non-fossil fuel on the other. As a means to reduce these tensions, a large number of voluntary sustainability schemes have emerged, particularly after the EU Renewable Energy Directive was adopted in 2009. If biofuel actors in the EU are to have their biofuels counted within the 10 per cent renewable target, to be attractive, these voluntary schemes must comply with the EU sustainability criteria for biofuels and bioliquids and be approved by the EU. When analysing the voluntary sustainability schemes applying to biofuel, the theory of reflexive law is applied. By highlighting the social dimension of sustainability, more specifically the human rights to participation, land and food, it is found that those schemes that have been develo...

Advanced Biofuels steadily developed during recent year, with several highly innovative processes and technologies explored at various scales: among these, lignocellulosic ethanol and CTO (Crude Tall Oil)-biofuel technologies already achieved early-commercial status, while hydrotreating of vegetable oils is today fully commercial, with almost 3.5 Mt/y installed capacity worldwide. In this context, microalgae grown in salt-water and arid areas represent a promising sustainable chain for advanced biofuel production but, at the same time, they also represent a considerable challenge. Processing microalgae in an economic way into a viable and sustainable liquid biofuel (a low-cost mass-product) is not trivial. So far, the most studied microalgae-based biofuel chain is composed by microorganism cultivation, lipid accumulation, oil extraction, co-product valorization, and algae oil conversion through conventional esterification into Fatty Acids Methyl Esters (FAME), i.e. Biodiesel, or Hydrotreated Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA), the latter representing a very high quality drop-in biofuel (suitable either for road transport or for aviation). However, extracting the algae oil at low cost and industrial scale is not yet a mature process, and there is not yet industrial production of algae-biofuel from these two lipid-based chains. Another option can however be considered: processing the algae through dedicated thermochemical reactors into advanced biofuels, thus approaching the downstream processing of algae in a completely different way than separation. The present work examines the possible routes for thermochemical conversion of microalgae into liquid biofuels, distinguishing between dry-processes (namely Pyrolysis, PO) and wet-processes (near critical-water HydroThermal Liquefaction, HTL). A literature review on algae-HTL was carried out, distinguishing between batch and continuous experiments, and compared to original results from algae pyrolysis. In particular, pyrolysis was carried out on both starved (lipid-accumulated) and non-starved microalgae. Typical composition of major products is given for both PO and HTL, comparing the main characteristic of the products. Major engineering advantages and challenges in thermochemical conversion of algae into liquid biofuels were identified and discussed for both processes, in view of the production of a transport biofuel and the full exploitation of this renewable feedstock in energy and biorefinery complexes.

Increasing bioenergy production from forest harvest residues decreases litter input to the soil and can thus reduce the carbon stock and sink of forests. This effect may negate greenhouse gas savings obtained by using bioenergy. We used a spatially explicit modelling framework to assess the reduction in the forest litter and soil carbon stocks across Europe, assuming that a sustainable potential of bioenergy from forest harvest residues is taken into use. The forest harvest residue removal reduced the carbon stocks of litter and soil on average by 3% over the period from 2016 to 2100. The reduction was small compared to the size of the carbon stocks but significant in comparison to the amount of energy produced from the residues. As a result of these land-use-related missions, bioenergy production from forest harvest residues would need to be continued for 60-80 years to achieve a 60% carbon dioxide (CO2) emission reduction in heat and power generation compared to the fossil fuels it replaces in most European countries. The emission reductions achieved and their timings varied among countries because of differences in the litter and soil carbon loss. Our results show that extending the current sustainability requirements for bioliquids and biofuels to solid bioenergy does not guarantee efficient reductions in greenhouse gas emissions in the short-term. In the longer-term, bioenergy from forest harvest residues may pave the way to low-emission energy systems.

The renewable energy directive (RED) of the EU sets mandatory targets for increasing the use of renewable energy in EU member states by 2020. The RED introduces sustainability criteria for transportation biofuels and other bioliquids in order to ensure that their increasing production does not cause serious environmental and social problems. Bio-oil production through fast pyrolysis is one technology under development. The aim of this paper is to explore whether bio-oil derived from logging residues in Finland meets the GHG performance criteria set by the EU. The pyrolysis reactor is assumed to be integrated with a combined heat and power production plant (CHP). Special attention is paid to uncertainty analysis. An emission reduction target of 60% as compared to the reference fuel is exceeded if the pyrolysis reactor and the CHP plant are considered as separate units, and changes in soil carbon balances are ignored. On the contrary, the particular target is not met using a 20-year time frame for changes in soil carbon balances. The results depend in large measure on the selection of parameters set and the interpretation of the definitions provided in the RED to set the system boundary for the pyrolysis reactor and the CHP plant.

Introduction of biofuels in place of heating oils and biocomponents of heating oils is fraught with technological and technical difficulties. The final product - microemulsion bioliquid must have in its composition more appropriately selected emulsifiers package designed to maintain a constant characteristic HLB resistant to variation of bioliquid components. Final microemulsion bioliquid should be stable at a wide range of temperature, the certain period of time, and should be produced under conditions easy to apply in industry. The paper presents preliminary results focused on liquid waste from dairy industry using as microemulsion bioliquid component and an economic analysis of microemulsion bioliquids application in supplying of electricity to local grids accordingly to their needs.

This review examines the use of steam reforming to convert bioliquids, such as ethanol, glycerol, butanol, vegetable oil, bio-oils and biodiesel, into hydrogen gas. The focus of the research was to investigate the research being undertaken in terms of catalyst developments for the steam reforming of the aforementioned feedstock, and to determine the perspective opportunities in this area. Hydrogen production by steam reforming of bio-oil, ethanol and pure glycerol has been widely investigated; several thermodynamic and catalytic investigations are available restricting new investigations. In contrast, hydrogen production from waste streams, vegetable oil, biodiesel and butanol is very recent and has room for further developments.

Anaerobic digestion promotes a valorisation of residual and dedicated biomass of agricultural origin. The EU Directive 2009/28/CE mandates a minimum 35% saving in greenhouse gas (GHG) emission for biofuels and bioliquids. National legislations add further limits, such as a 70 km maximum distance in the supply of biomass for energy uses (Short chain support scheme in Italy). In order to assess if the substitution of fossil fuels with biogas complies with such obligations and which are the factors most influencing GHG savings, a simulation study was carried out on a digester fed by maize silage, as many plants built in the frame of the current incentives. A simplified balance was drawn between the CO2 emitted and saved by a 1000 kWel digester aimed for heat and electricity co-generation. The simulation output was the operational radius of feedstock supply and digestate disposal allowing a 35% CO2 saving in a standard scenario. A sensitivity analysis was also run by varying several traits concerning process efficiency, feedstock characteristics, logistic aspects, plus the amount of net thermal energy actually exploited and CH4 and N2O emissions from the stored digestate. The standard scenario involving a 35% CO2 saving allowed an operational radius of 192 km, almost three times as large as the maximum distance prescribed by the Short chain scheme. As an alternative, a 50% CO2 saving was possible at a radius of 70 km. Varying the process, feedstock and logistic traits by ±10% determined variations in the break-even distance associated with a 35% CO2 saving, ranging from ±20% (total solids; volatile solids; anaerobic biogasification potential; biogas CH4 content), to ±15% (energy efficiency), to only ±5% (CO2 emissions in the cropping phase; the carrying capacity of transport means). Actual heat utilisation and digestate GHG emissions, respectively set at 100% and 0% in the standard scenario, are traits with a high uncertainty in the normal practice. Therefore, a respective variation of −50% and +50% was adopted in the sensitivity analysis, determining in both cases a strong reduction (50%) of the break-even distance. In order to overcome the critical points represented by the amount of net thermal energy actually valorised and by GHG emissions from the stored digestate, special care is needed in planning biogas plants, in order to ensure a good utilisation of heat and recycle residual CH4 within the process.

The investigation of upgraded bio-fuels production processes was carried out via the development of efficient catalysts for oxy-organic hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) processes. It was found that Ni–Cu catalysts are more attractive than single Ni catalysts in HDO under mild conditions. Copper facilitates the nickel oxide reduction at temperatures lower than 300 °C. Moreover, copper prevents methanization of oxy-organics at 280–350 °C. The catalyst supports play also a key role in hydrotreatment of oxygen-containing compounds. Screening of catalyst supports showed that CeO 2 and ZrO 2 are most effective in the target processes because of possible additional activation of oxy-compounds on the support surface. The prepared catalysts have non-sulfided nature and can be used for upgrading of bioliquids with a low sulfur content.

Research in Advanced Biofuels steadily developed during recent years. A number of highly innovative technologies have been explored at various scale: among these, lignocellulosic ethanol and CTO (Crude Tall Oil)-biofuel technologies already achieved the early-commercial status, while hydrotreating of vegetable oils (HVO, or HEFA) can be considered today fully commercial. However, despite the level of innovation in each specific technological process under consideration, the feedstock maintains a central role in making a biofuel chain really sustainable. In this context, microalgae grown in salt-water and arid areas offers a considerable opportunity for advanced biofuel production: at the same time, however, they also represent a considerable challenge. Processing microalgae in an economic way into a viable and sustainable liquid biofuel (a low-cost mass-produced product) is not trivial. So far, the main attention has been given to cultivating the microorganism, accumulating lipids, extracting the oil, valorising co-products, and treating the algae oil into biodiesel (through esterification) or HEFA (Hydrotreated Esthers and Fatty Acids), this second one representing a very high quality biofuels, almost a drop-in fuel (suitable either for road transport or for aviation), which production exceed 2 Mt y-1 today. However, extracting the algae oil at low cost and at industrial scale is not yet a full industrial mature process, and the still limited market size of algae-to-biofuels makes difficult the development of industrial-scale systems. Nevertheless, another option can be considered, i.e. processing the whole algae into dedicated thermochemical reactors, thus approaching the downstream processing of algae in a completely different way from separation. The present work examines the possible routes for thermochemical conversion of microalgae, distinguishing between dry-processes (namely pyrolysis and gasification) and wet-processes (near critical water hydrothermal liquefaction and hydrothermal gasification). Typical expected elementary composition of major products is given. Main peculiarities of batch versus continuous processing are also discussed from an engineering point of view. Major engineering advantages and challenges in thermochemically conversion of algae are identified and discussed, in view of the production of a transport biofuel. Finally, future perspectives for each route are given in terms of current and expected technological readiness level.

In the light of a controversial discussion on the net benefit of biofuels and bioenergy, the European Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC, RED)—which sets out a mandatory target for the share of renewable energy in the transport sector (10 % by 2020)—has established a number of mandatory sustainability criteria, which biofuels and bioliquids have to meet to be able to be counted towards the target. However, these mandatory sustainability criteria so far only address selected environmental impacts (greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and biodiversity) and omit impacts on soil, water, and air as well as GHG emissions due to indirect land-use change (iLUC). Social and socio-economic impacts are not covered at all. The latter gap was addressed by the EU-FP7-funded Global-Bio-Pact project. The project’s main aim was to improve and harmonize global sustainability certification systems for biomass production, conversion systems and trade in order to prevent negative socio-economic impacts. Within the project, linkages between socio-economic and environmental impacts of biofuels/bioenergy and bio-based products were analyzed in order to avoid an increase of negative environmental impacts while trying to prevent negative socio-economic impacts. After an introduction and some insights into the environmental impacts of biofuels/bioenergy and bio-based products, this chapter presents the results of a SWOT analysis (analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats), revealing trade-offs as well as positive and negative correlations between socio-economic and environmental impacts. These linkages are subsequently interpreted using the concept of ecosystem services. Finally, conclusions are drawn and a recommendation is made how the current list of mandatory sustainability criteria in the RED could be amended.

A large share of the vegetable oil market is today shifting from food to the energy sector. This trend led to discussions about the chance of confliction between these two chains and its possible social and environmental consequences. Moreover the increasing interest in pure vegetable oils for energy and biodiesel production are associated to a period of market volatilities and high prices. The economics of the biodiesel production is suffering the actual market situation. In this framework, the present work presents the results of the OVEST (ESTerified Vegetable Oils) project, which is supported by the Tuscany region. Aim of the project is the investigation of the use of waste oil streams and by-products from food industry to obtain an alternative feedstock for bioliquids and biofuels production. In the current food market, a number of secondary streams are available from the food industry: oleins and fatty acids, sludge oils and WCO (Waste Cooking Oils), represent several examples of these potential alternative feedstock. Most of these materials are characterized by high free fatty acid compositions. In the OVEST project, vegetable oil is obtained from waste materials by the re-esterification process, in order to obtain a new feedstock for biodiesel production and for power generation. A market analysis has been carried out in OVEST, to estimate the economic viability and the potential of each waste streams. Test on a modified Micro Gas Turbine (30 kWel) and in small scale co-generator (5 kWel) have been carried out. Performances and pollutant missions were monitored. The results of the experimentation confirmed the viability of these fuels for the energy production. From the environmental point of view, the use of these feedstock allows to meet the requirements of the European Directive EC/28/2009 (RED), that introduces minimum targets in terms of GHGs saving for bioliquids and biofuels. The present work showed that most of the input materials to the esterification process may be classified as wastes or residues, and that assuring an accurate traceability for each treatment and transport phase is a really complex issue. However the high GHG savings potential, as indicated in the RED for bioliquids from wastes, was confirmed by the work here carried out. Therefore OVEST project demonstrates the viability of the use of esterified oils as biodiesel feedstock or for direct energy generation, starting from a renewable source, non competing with food market and with a high GHG saving potential.

The European Union (EU) has set a binding greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction target for transportation biofuels and other bioliquids. In this study, the GHG emissions of various biofuel chains considered as relevant in large-scale production in Finland were calculated in accordance with the EU sustainability criteria. Special attention was paid to uncertainties and the sensitivities of certain parameters. According to the results, it is impossible in many cases to unambiguously conclude whether or not a biofuel chain passes the emission-saving limit provided by the EU. This may reduce the willingness to invest in biofuel production. Major sources of uncertainties and sensitivities are nitrous oxide emissions from soil and nitrogen fertilisation, emissions of process heat production and soil carbon stock changes in biomass production. Several propositions are made in order to reduce the uncertainty of the results and to make the EU sustainability criteria for biofuels more harmonised and accurate.

The European Union (EU) set a binding greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction target for transportation biofuels and other bioliquids. In this study, the GHG emissions of biodiesel chain from sunflower, rapeseed and soybean were calculated in compliance with the European Union Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC (RED). Input data used for the agricultural step were referred to the Umbrian region for sunflower and rapeseed and to the Veneto region for soybean, while data obtained from the main Italian biodiesel plants were employed for the processing step. Results showed that GHG emissions were higher than default values reported in the RED for sunflower and rapeseed and lower for soybean. Only sunflower biodiesel does not reach the minimum value of GHG saving (35%). The main differences with data used in the RED concern cultivation step, while the processing step has overall the same values of GHG emissions. Finally, three case studies were examined in order to identify possible improvements to make the analyzed supply chains more sustainable.