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Species of Clavaria (Clavariaceae, Agaricales) collected from China were studied using morphological and molecular methods. Two species, C. griseolilacina and C. sinensis were described as new species; both possess branched and pale purple-tinged fruit bodies. However, the former possess a few branched, while the latter is profusely branched. The phylogenetic analysis based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences confirmed the distinctions between these two new species and their close relationships with C. rubicundula and C. fumosa in the genus. An evolutionary tendency in genus Clavaria was discussed. Additionally, morphological features of the two new species were described in detail and were illustrated with line drawings and photographs. Holotypes of the new species are deposited in the Mycological Herbarium of Hunan Normal University (MHHNU). The ITS sequences generated in this study were deposited in GenBank. A key is provided for the known Clavaria species in China.

This is the fourth in a series of four papers that treat the 56 species and one incertae sedis in the genus Cladonota Stal. The genus Cladonota contains four subgenera: Falculifera McKamey, Cladonota Stal, Lecythifera Fowler, and Lobocladisca Stal. This paper treats the nine species in the subgenus Lobocladisca, which includes C. bennetti (Kirby), C. biclavata (Westwood), C. clavaria (Fairmaire), C. livida (Buckton), C. lobulata (Stal), C. occidentalis (Strumpel), C. rigida (Stal), C. spatulata (Fairmaire), and C. vexillifera (Goding). Cladonota orientalis (Strumpel) is treated as a new junior synonym of C. biclavata (Westwood). Keys, species illustrations, and diagnoses are given for each species treated.

Climate change may alter mycorrhizal communities, which impact ecosystem characteristics such as carbon sequestration processes. These impacts occur at a greater magnitude in Arctic ecosystems, where the climate is warming faster than in lower latitudes. Cassiope tetragona (L.) D. Don is an Arctic plant species in the Ericaceae family with a circumpolar range. C. tetragona has been reported to form ericoid mycorrhizal (ErM) as well as ectomycorrhizal (ECM) symbioses. In this study, the fungal taxa present within roots of C. tetragona plants collected from Svalbard were investigated using DNA metabarcoding. In light of ongoing climate change in the Arctic, the effects of artificial warming by open-top chambers (OTCs) on the fungal root community of C. tetragona were evaluated. We detected only a weak effect of warming by OTCs on the root-associated fungal communities that was masked by the spatial variation between sampling sites. The root fungal community of C. tetragona was dominated by fungal groups in the Basidiomycota traditionally classified as either saprotrophic or ECM symbionts, including the orders Sebacinales and Agaricales and the genera Clavaria, Cortinarius, and Mycena. Only a minor proportion of the operational taxonomic units (OTUs) could be annotated as ErM-forming fungi. This indicates that C. tetragona may be forming mycorrhizal symbioses with typically ECM-forming fungi, although no characteristic ECM root tips were observed. Previous studies have indicated that some saprophytic fungi may also be involved in biotrophic associations, but whether the saprotrophic fungi in the roots of C. tetragona are involved in biotrophic associations remains unclear. The need for more experimental and microscopy-based studies to reveal the nature of the fungal associations in C. tetragona roots is emphasized.

Se comunica la recolección de Clavaria nigricans, Tremellodendrospis pusio, Battarrea stevenii, Coltricia perennis, Streptomyces albus, S. antibioticus, S. cliifornicus, S.coelicolor, S. flavogliseus, S. Fradiae, S. globisporus, S Globossus, S.griseus, S. melanocyclus, S.odorifer, S. olivaceus, S. parvus, S. phaeochromogenes, S. rimosus, S. roseochromogenes. S. violaceus-niger; S.violaceus-ruber, S. viridis.

Increasing numbers of fungal species have been described recently from semi-natural grassland soils, raising the conservation interest of these species-rich habitats. Here, we characterize the soil fungal community inhabiting six fairy rings in a montane grassland of the Eastern Pre-Pyrenees through fungal DNA metabarcoding of ITS2 amplicons. Distinct soil fungal communities were observed outside of the rings compared to inside the ring areas. Higher abundances of fungi belonging to Pleosporales and Eurotiales were observed outside fairy rings, whereas zones belonging to the fairy rings showed higher abundances of Agaricales. Fungal diversity was higher inside the rings than outside. We found diverse saprotrophic or putative saprotrophic taxa associated with the studied rings, including the genera Clavaria, Psathyrella, Tricholoma, Amanita and Lycoperdon. These findings highlight the importance of particular keystone taxa in the structuring of fungal communities and their effect on the overall grassland fungal community., This study was developed within the projects BIOGEI (CGL 2013-49142-C2-1-R) and CAPAS (CGL 2010-22378-C03-01) funded by the Spanish Science Foundation (FECYT) jointly with the FPU programme (FPU12/05849) run by the Spanish Ministry of Education. Funding from the project IMAGINE (CGL 2017-85490-R) allowed the completion of this work.

Data on the diversity of aphyllophoroid fungi in the surroundings of the Kem’ Town and Kemsky District of the Republic of Karelia are presented. As of now, 75 species are known from Kem’ Town surroundings and 185 species from the Kemsky District. Antrodia hyalina Spirin, Miettinen et Kotir., Tomentella cinereoumbrina (Bres.) Stalpers, Tyromyces kmetii (Bres.) Bondartsev et Singer and two arcto-alpine species (Clavaria sphagnicola Boud., Ramariopsis subarctica Pilat) are noted for the Republic of Karelia for the first time. 74 species are new for the Kemsky District and 71 species are new for the biogeographic province Karelia keretina (Kk). The current total record for the Kemsky District is 185 species of aphyllophoroid fungi. New sites were discovered for four species from the Red Data Book of the Republic of Karelia (Antrodia mellita Niemela et Pentilla, Clavariadelphus pistillaris (L.) Donk, Lentaria afflata (Lagger) Corner, Tomentella crinalis (Fr.) M. J. Larsen). Additionally, Ramaria flavobrunnescens (G. F. Atk.) Corner can be considered as a candidate for the new edition of the regional Red Data Book. Seven indicatorspecies for virgin forests and 15 for old-growth forests of eastern Fennoscandia were identified. The degree of knowledge on aphyllophoroid fungi biomorphs in this territory in comparison with other well-studied territories of the Republic was assessed. The distribution map for the species richness of clavarioid fungi in Eastern Fennoscandia (from the Arctic coast of the Barents Sea to the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga) is provided. The north-to-south change in the species richness of clavarioid fungi, from tundra to south-taiga forests of Eastern Fennoscandia, is discussed. The current total record for the Kemsky District is 185 species of aphyllophoroid fungi.

This study investigated ericoid mycorrhizal fungi (EMF) diversity in Vaccinium uliginosum across its main wild distribution range in China. Fungal communities in hair roots of V. uliginosum were analyzed using Illumina MiSeq sequencing. Only 22 OTUs were assigned to putative EMF genera. Rhizoscyphus and Meliniomyces dominated EMF communities, followed by Clavaria, Oidiodendron, Lachnum, Acephala, and Phialocephala. There were more dark septate endophytes (DSE) reads from the Greater Khingan Mountains than from other study areas, similar to the results of the percent colonization of DSE by the magnified intersections method. Overall, high-throughput sequencing data provided a rough community-scale sketch of root-associated fungi of V. uliginosum. Two hundred and eighty slow-growing isolates were isolated from root pieces of V. uliginosum, and the isolates matched 16 fungal genera on the basis of morphological and internal transcribed spacer sequence comparison. The isolates of Cryptosporiopsis ericae, Oidiodendron maius, Lachnum sp., Sordariomycetes sp., and Pleosporales sp., formed ericoid hyphal coils via resynthesis trails. The co-existence between EMF and DSE in hair roots was observed via trypan blue staining. A putative model for the co-existence between EMF and DSE in the hair roots of V. uliginosum was proposed. We suggest that under certain environmental stresses, such as low temperature and poor available nutrients, ericoid plants may favor co-colonization by both DSE and EMF.

Based on an exhaustive sampling of all known Lepidostromatales, a lineage of clavarioid lichen-forming basidiomycetes, we assess (i) the phylogenetic affinities of the six Chinese species currently accommodated in Multiclavula (Cantharellales) based on inferences from the 18S and 28S subunits of the nuclear ribosomal DNA repeat and (ii) the phylogenetic structure among Chinese populations of Lepidostromatales, based on the nuc rDNA ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (internal transcribed spacer [ITS]) regions. Multiclavula fossicola and M. sinensis belong to the Lepidostromatales and are transferred to Sulzbacheromyces. Chinese reports of M. clara and M. vernalis belong to species of Lepidostromatales, and specimens identified as M. mucida belong to the nonlichenized genus Clavaria. Hence, evidence of Multiclavula occurring in China is lacking. Similarly, L. calocerum is excluded from the Chinese flora. The recently described L. asianum should be regarded as conspecific with S. sinensis. Three new species of Sulzbacheromyces are described: S. bicolor and S. yunnanensis from China and S. miomboensis from the Democratic Republic of Congo. Consequently, Sulzbacheromyces is new to Asia and Africa. A worldwide key to the species of Lepidostromatales is provided.

This study explores species limits of a group of Clavaria species with taxonomic and nomenclatural problems and discusses the phylogeny and circumscription of the genus. The nuc 28S rDNA (28S) and internal transcribed spacer region phylog- enies resolve species relationships, and the ITS is shown to be an adequate barcode marker for Clavaria. Yellow, clamped species of Clavaria are distributed in two clades, (i) C. flavostellifera, sister to C. incarnata and C. asterospora in ITS analyses, characterized by producing ornamented spores, and (ii) C. argillacea-C. citrinorubra-C. flavipes-C. sphagni- cola, with smooth spores. Clavaria flavostellifera is described as new species based on morphological and molecular characters. Molecular evidence that sup- ports C. sphagnicola as distinct from C. argillacea is provided. The usefulness of spore ornamentation as a taxonomic character is discussed; it is present only in some taxa and then only on spores trapped in the hymenium. Descriptions of C. argillacea, C. flavipes and C. sphagnicola are provided, along with color photographs and a key to yellow species of Clavaria with clamped basidia. Camarophyllopsis and Clavicor- ona are recovered within a paraphyletic Clavaria in our 28S phylogeny. Clampless contextual hyphae and narrow, slightly thick-walled mycelial hyphae are proposed as synapomorphies of Camarophyllopsis and Clavaria.

Ramaria Fr. and Clavaria L. are the two major genera of coral mushrooms within families Gomphaceae and Clavariaceae, respectively. Besides having important role in forest ecology, some species of these are reported to possess high nutraceutical and bioactive potential. There is a hidden diversity of coral mushrooms in Northwestern Himalayas. Present studies describe the detailed biochemical profiling and antioxidant, and antibacterial activities of twelve coral mushroom species. Biochemical profiling of nutrients and nutraceuticals was done with standard techniques and by using HPLC, UPLC and GC. Experiments were also conducted to check the toxic metals detection. Antioxidant activities were calculated using EC50 values from mushroom extracts. Antibacterial activities were checked on six pathogenic bacterial strains through minimum inhibition concenterations. Although, differences were observed in the net values of individual species but all the species were found to be rich in protein, macro and micro minerals, carbohydrates, unsaturated fatty acids, essential amino acids, phenolics, tocopherols, anthocynadins and carotenoids. All the species showed significant antioxidant and antibacterial activities. These species are reported to free from heavy toxic metals. Present studies will open the way for their large scale commercial exploitations and use in pharmaceutical industries as antioxidant, antibacterial and nutraceutical constituents.

We present new records of noteworthy aphyllophoroid fungi, mainly polypores and corticioids in Finland. The following 19 rare or infrequently collected species are presented with notes on their substrates: Amylocorticium subsulphureum, Antrodiella parasitica, Ceraceomyces sulphurinus, Clavaria atroumbrina, Clavaria rosea, Gloeophyllum carbonarium, Hyphodontia flavipora, Junghuhnia fimbriatella, Lindtneria chordulata, Odonticium septocystidia, Peniophorella guttulifera, Perenniporia tenuis, Postia immitis, Repetobasidium vile, Resinicium pinicola, Sidera vulgaris, Tomentella coerulea, Trechispora laevis and Xylodon pruni. We also list 41 aphyllophoroid fungi as new to some sections of the boreal vegetation zone in Finland.

Although Xylaria hypoxylon is one of the most familiar fungi of temperate regions, the basionym of the name, Clavaria hypoxylon of Linnaeus, has remained untypified. Here we assess the original five elements included in the 1753 protologue; no candidate specimen was located but two illustrations Linnaeus cited were considered, one a mixture of species and the other fanciful. As the name is sanctioned, following clarifications in the Melbourne Code, elements cited by Fries when the name was sanctioned in 1823 are also candidates for lectotypification. In addition to various illustrations, Fries cites two exsiccatae, and one from his own Scleromycetes Suecicae distributed in 1821 is designated as lectotype for Linnaeus' name here. In view of the complexity of the group as revealed by molecular systematic work, and the poor state of the Fries material, we also designate a sequenced epitype from Sweden. We stress the importance of examining fungi in the complex in the sexual state, as those that are asexual can be difficult to identify conclusively. Figures of the original protologues and the most pertinent illustrations and specimens are provided, along with a detailed description and illustrations based on recent collections.

The Clavariaceae is a diverse family of mushroom-forming fungi composed of species that produce simple clubs, coralloid, lamellate-stipitate, hydnoid and resupinate sporocarps. Here we present a systematic and ecological overview of the Clavariaceae based on phylogenetic analysis of sequences of the nuclear large subunit ribosomal RNA (nLSU), including nine from type collections. Forty-seven sequences from sporocarps of diverse taxa across the Clavariaceae were merged with 243 environmental sequences from GenBank and analyzed phylogenetically to determine major clades within the family. Four major clades or lineages were recovered: (i) Mucronella, (ii) Ramariopsis-Clavulinopsis, (iii) Hyphodontiella and (iv) Clavaria-Camarophyllopsis-Clavicorona. Clavaria is paraphyletic, within which the lamellate and pileate-stipitate genus Camarophyllopsis is derived and composed of two independent lineages. The monotypic genus Clavicorona also appears nested within Clavaria. The monophyly of Clavaria and Camarophyllopsis, however, cannot be statistically rejected. We compared differing classification schemes for the genera Ramariopsis and Clavulinopsis, most of which are inconsistent with the molecular phylogeny and are statistically rejected. Scytinopogon, a genus classified in the Clavariaceae by several authors, shares phylogenetic affinities with the Trechisporales. Overall 126 molecular operational taxonomic units can be recognized in the Clavariaceae, roughly half of which are known only from environmental sequences, an estimate that exceeds the known number of species in the family. Stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen were measured from specimens representing most major phylogenetic lineages to predict trophic strategies. These results suggest that most non-lignicolous species feature a biotrophic mode of nutrition. Ancestral state reconstruction analysis highlights the taxonomic significance of at least nine morphological traits at various depths in the family tree.

Clavaria species with dark basidiomata occurring in Europe were analysed using morphological and molecular methods. Morphological analyses revealed four groups containing seven Clavaria species with dark basidiomata. Phylogenetic analysis of the LSU nrDNA region confirmed the separate positions of all seven Clavaria species within the genus. All sequences were grouped in four well-supported clades, mostly corresponding to defined morphological species. The results of the molecular study are inconsistent with the infrageneric classification of Clavaria based on the presence or absence of clamps on the bases of basidia and two widely accepted subgenera. Clavaria and Holocoryne appear to be polyphyletic. A new approach in species delimitation is presented: 1) C. asperulispora and C. atrofusca are two distinct species recognized by the shape of their spores, and the name C. neo-nigrita is a possible synonym of C. asperulispora; 2) species with clustered fragile basidiomata, C. fumosa and Clavaria cf. fuscoferruginea, which are almost identical in shape and size of spores differing only in the darker basidiomata of the latter, are phylogenetically unrelated; 3) Clavaria atrobadia is a dubious species, the name being most likely a synonym of C. fuscoferruginea; 4) two species with close morphological and phylogenetic affinity, C. atroumbrina and C. pullei, are distinguished based on the more oblong and narrower spores of the former. Comparison of European and North American material suggests the transatlantic nature of the distribution of C. asperulispora, C. atroumbrina and C. fumosa.

To stabilize the taxonomy of the genus Porites in the western Atlantic and provide a foundation from which to launch future taxonomic research, neotypes for the coral species Porites porites and P. divaricata are chosen and Porites verrillii is proposed as a junior synonym of P. astreoides. Colony photographs and stereo scanning electron micrographs are provided of corallites of: 1) neotypes of P. porites (i.e., the P. clavaria holotype) and P. divaricata, 2) the holotypes of P. furcata, P. branneri, P. colonensis, and P. verrillii, and 3) a common P. astreoides. A brief taxonomic history of the genus is also provided.

A taxonomic and nomenclatural revision of some representatives of Clavariaceae is presented based on extensive collecting in central and western Europe. Five species originally described from Europe are identified, redescribed and delimited: Clavaria fragilis, Ramariopsis crocea, R. corniculata, R. helvola and R. pulchella. Lectotypes, epitypes or neotypes are designated for all these species. Descriptions are based on macro- and micromorphological characters and supplemented with DNA analyses of the nrLSU regions from 20 specimens. The molecular phylogenetic analyses reconstructed a phylogram showing relation- ships among the discussed species as well as some closely related taxa. The taxonomic value of the ratio of length and width of spores (Q-value) is discussed.

Collections of three fungal species described from Germany by Alexander von Humboldt have been rediscovered in the mycological herbarium at Kew. These collections are considered lectotypes of Boletus patella, B. venosus, and Clavaria aurea and are assigned to Postia stiptica, Physisporinus vitreus, and Calocera viscosa respectively. Humboldt’s Central & South American collections are also at Kew and a list of specimens is appended. Based on the rediscovered type collection, Favolus humboldtii is considered a synonym of Polyporus tenuiculus.

The diet of the nudibranch mollusc Tritonia odhneri was investigated for the first time based on a detailed anatomical analysis of the gut content of 52 specimens. Digestive tracts of specimens were analysed under stereoscopic microscope equipped with digital camera. Portions of octocorals containing the calcareous sclerites were removed from the tracts and prepared for scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Sclerite morphology and size were determined at the species and genus level on the basis of a taxonomical revision and compared with fresh octocoral specimens collected from Patagonia (San Jorge Gulf) and with voucher specimens from the collections of Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales (MACN-in). Specific predation of T. odhneri on octocoral species present in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean was detected. The nudibranch feeds on the gorgonians Primnoella divaricata, Primnoella scotiae (=P. compressa) and Tripalea clavaria, and the pennatulaceans Renilla octodentata and Stylatula sp. A world checklist of dietary interactions between species of the genus Tritonia and octocorals is presented and discussed.

Xylaria hypoxylon, the type species of Xylaria (Xylariaceae, Sordariomycetes), was first described by Linnaeus as Clavaria hypoxylon from Sweden. Saccardo and other mycologists assumed a cosmopolitan distribution for this species. However, contradictory reports in the literature on its morphoanatomical characters and strongly inconsistent rDNA sequence data attributed to this species in GenBank suggested the existence of an unresolved species complex. To address this lack of clarity, molecular and morphological characters of numerous specimens and corresponding cultures of X. hypoxylon and related taxa from Europe were studied. Newly obtained 5.8S/ITS nrDNA sequence data were compared with published data and sequences of reference strains. European populations of X. hypoxylon from various hosts exhibited consistent rDNA sequence data and a relatively uniform holomorphic morphology, except for one specimen from Sweden that deviated in its ascospore morphology. Some samples from western United States showed DNA sequence data being identical to those of specimens from Europe, confirming a North American occurrence of X. hypoxylon. DNA sequences and morphology of other extra-European material however showed substantial deviations. Definitely not conspecific with the European material examined in this study is a strain, assigned to X. hypoxylon, the DNA sequence data of which have been used in various phylogenetic studies as a representative of Xylariaceae and Xylariales respectively. This material probably represents X longiana.

Three new sesquiterpenes, pyxidatol A–C (1–3, resp.), were obtained from the fermentation culture of Clavaria pyxidata, together with two known ones, tsugicoline E (4) and omphadiol (5). Their structures were elucidated through spectroscopic analyses, including 1D- and 2D-NMR experiments, HR-ESI-Q-TOF mass spectrometry, chemical correlation, and X-ray single-crystal diffraction.

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview.Psilocybe, with 53 known hallucinogenic species in Mexico, is the most important and diverse group of sacred mushrooms used by Mexican indigenous cultures. Psilocybe caerulescens, known by the present-day Nahuatl Indians as teotlaquilnanacatl, is hypothesized to be the ceremonially-used teonanacatl mushroom cited by Sahagun in the 16th century, the true identity of which has remained obscure for centuries. Correcting a widely disseminated error derived from early published information on Mexican hallucinogenic mushrooms, emphasis is placed on the fact that Panaeolus species have never been used traditionally in Mexico. Reports of the use of species of Amanita, Clavaria, Conocybe, Cordyceps, Dictyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, Psathyrella, and Stropharia as sacred or narcotic mushrooms are discussed. A brief history of the discovery of hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico is presented, as well as notes on their taxonomy, distribution, and traditional use in Mexico.

At the 2005 grassland fungi workshop in Wales, Debbie Evans brought along a specimen of a yellow clavarioid fungus which she had identified as Clavaria amoenoides Corner et al., a species not previously known to be British but listed in Nordic Macromycetes (Hansen & Knudsen, 1997) as occurring in Scandinavia. An additional collection was made during the workshop itself and further specimens were collected at the 2006 upland foray in Wales, in a pasture next to the foray centre. It seems we now have three yellow or yellowish Clavaria species in the British Isles, all of them unbranched (tubular or clubshaped) and distinctly pale or dull compared with the much commoner and brighter yellow Clavulinopsis species. As with the black and brown Clavaria species (Roberts, 2007), the literature on these species is scattered, so a brief key and descriptions follow. ‘Q’ is spore length divided by breadth.

The genus Camarophyllopsis contains species with lamellate (agaricoid) basidiomes in the family Clavariaceae (Agaricales), a group otherwise dominated by club-like (clavarioid) or branched (coralloid) forms. Previous studies have suggested that species classified in Camarophyllopsis occur in two independent lineages. We reconstructed a multilocus phylogeny of the Clavaria-Camarophyllopsis-Clavicorona clade in the Clavariaceae using RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (rpb2), nuclear ribosomal 28S, and nuclear ribosomal ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 regions data and detected three independent groups of agaricoid fungi, including the genera Camarophyllopsis, Hodophilus, and Lamelloclavaria gen. nov, which distinctly differ in their pileipellis structure. In all, nine major lineages within the Clavaria-Camarophyllopsis-Clavicorona clade were recovered: Clavaria sensu stricto, Camarophyllopsis sensu stricto, Hodophilus, the Clavaria pullei clade, the Clavaria fumosa clade, Lamelloclavaria gen. nov., the Clavaria atrofusca clade, Holocoryne (= Clavaria sect. Holocoryne), and Clavicorona Clavaria is paraphyletic and represented by five clades. Additional gene sampling is necessary to determine and confirm relatedness of these lineages before splitting Clavaria into additional genera.

The earliest pre-Linnaean fungal genera are briefly discussed here with special emphasis on the nomenclatural connection with the genus Cordyceps Fr. Since its valid publication under the basidiomycetous genus Clavaria Vaill. ex L. (Clavaria militaris L. Sp. Pl. 2:1182, 1753), the genus Cordyceps has undergone nomenclatural changes in the post-Linnaean era, but has stood firmly for approximately 200 years. Synonyms of Cordyceps were collected from different literature sources and analyzed based on the species they represent. True synonyms of Cordyceps Fr. were defined as genera that represented species of Cordyceps Fr. emend. G. H. Sung, J. M. Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora. The most common synonyms of Cordyceps observed were Clavaria and Sphaeria Hall, reported in the 18th and in the first half of the 19th century, respectively. Cordyceps, the oldest genus in the Cordyceps s. s. clade of Cordycipitaceae, is the most preferred name under the "One Fungus = One Name" principle on priority bases.

The clavari was the principal financial manager of the town councils of the Late Middle Ages, and his account books should constitute the foundations of any study of local finances for that period. Such studies of municipalities of Catalonia and the rest of the Crown of Aragon have indeed taken such an approach. The present article aims to draw readers'attention to the possibilities of the Llibres de Clavaria in order to reconstruct the council finances, and to show this, it is studied the Llibre de clavaria of the town of Cervera, dated in 1442. An analysis of this book is followed by a comparative examination of other towns and, finally, a detailed study of the institution of the clavaria itself.

Sequence data from mitochondrial and nuclear small subunit rDNA were used to estimate phylogenetic relationships of cantharelloid and cla- varioid Homobasidiomycetes. Sixty-five diverse Homobasidiomycete species were investigated, in- cluding 23 cantharelloid and clavarioid species. Al- though nodes deep in the tree could not be resolved, four lineages containing cantharelloid and clavarioid fungi were identified. (i) Cantharellaceae (Canthar- ellus, Craterellus) is closely related to Hydnum, which is toothed, Stichoclavaria, which is a simple club, and Clavulina, which is coralloid. These taxa all have stichic nuclear division, which is a synapomorphy supporting this clade. (ii) Clavariadelphus is closely related to Gomphus and Ramaria. This relationship is supported by green reactions of sporocarps treated with iron salts, which is reflective of the presence of the compound pistillarin. The nearest relatives of these cantharelloid and clavarioid fungi are gastero- mycetes, including the earth star Geastrum, the stink- horn Pseudocolus, and the "cannon-ball fungus" Sphaerobolus. (iii) The clavarioid fungi Clavaria, Cla- vulinopsis, Pterula, and Typhula appear to be derived from the lineage that contains most of the gilled fun- gi. (iv) Clavicorona is closely related to Auriscalpium, which is toothed, and Lentinellus, which is gilled. This lineage is united by amyloid spore ornamenta- tion. Although these results suggest that there has been extensive convergence in fruiting body mor- phology, certain anatomical and biochemical features appear to be phylogenetically informative, notably stichic nuclear division, presence of pistillarin, and cyanophily or amyloidity of spore ornamentation.

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Two Clavaria mushrooms were investigated as sources of antioxidant compounds, essential trace elements Selenium and Zinc, and as efficient antioxidants in elimination/inhibition of different radical species. Using HPLC method, pistillarin - rare siderphore compound characterized with high antioxidant activity, was detected in both extracts. Higher content of pistillarin has been measured in C. pistillaris extract. The same extract contained the higher content of Selenium, 3.051 μg/g. Both extracts showed important antioxidant activity. For C. pistillaris extract lower IC50 value has been measured and higher antioxidant activity against O2˙- radical has been detected. Although the content of pistillarin was higher in the case of C. pistillaris, at the concentration of 0.2 mg/ml C. fennica extract showed just some higher antioxidant activity against ˙OH radicals, 82% and 87%, respectively.

Three new sesquiterpenes, pyxidatol A–C (1–3, resp.), were obtained from the fermentation culture of Clavaria pyxidata, together with two known ones, tsugicoline E (4) and omphadiol (5). Their structures were elucidated through spectroscopic analyses, including 1D- and 2D-NMR experiments, HR-ESI-Q-TOF mass spectrometry, chemical correlation, and X-ray single-crystal diffraction.

Seven new C-secosteroids were isolated from the gorgonian Tripalea clavaria collected from the South Atlantic. These compounds have a Delta(5), 9,11-secosteroid nucleus together with a 22S hydroxyl group. The absolute configuration of the 22-hydroxyl group was determined with the help of COSY spectra of the Mosher esters of the compounds.

Fungi that produce clavarioid fruit bodies have evolved independently many times in the Basidiomycota. The evolutionary significance of this morphology is difficult to interpret because the phylogenetic positions of many clavarioid fungi are still unknown. In this study we examined the phylogenetic diversity of the Clavariaceae sensu lato among Homobasidiomycetidae by adding partial nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences from clavarioid and corticioid fungi to a large euagaric dataset and analyzing them both together and separately. Our results indicate that the clavarioid morphology has evolved at least five times in the euagarics while the inclusion of type species enabled us to evaluate the taxonomic consequences of this polyphyletic distribution. Although the sampling available at present is incomplete, a qualitative assessment of our phylogenetic hypotheses indicates that the clavarioid habit might not be as evolutionary labile as previously reported. We propose the new genus Alloclavaria to accommodate Clavaria purpurea, which is not related to Clavaria but is derived within the hymenochaetoid clade. The Physalacriaceae and Clavariaceae are redefined to reflect monophyletic groups, and the limits of Clavaria, Clavulinopsis and Ramariopsis should be reconsidered when additional data are available.

Introduction During the 9th Congress of European Mycologists in Oslo, 1985, quantitative data were presented for the first time on changes in the mycota, in particular in The Netherlands (Arnolds, 1988). These data supported the fears of many mycologists and naturalists, namely that macrofungi were decreasing, at least some species in some areas. This information was the motive for the establishment of the European Committee for Protection of Fungi, which later changed its name into the European Council for Conservation of Fungi (ECCF). In this chapter I will review the developments in fungus conservation in Europe during the past 15 years and look forward towards challenges in the future. I restrict myself to macrofungi since microfungi are rarely considered in relation to conservation (but see Chapter 17). Effective conservation of fungi depends on the compilation and integration of data from different disciplines, here summarised in the scheme shown in Fig. 4.1. Central in this scheme are Red Data lists because they reflect our knowledge on the status of fungal species and are meant as a basis for measurements and to present our conclusions to a wider audience. Obviously, progress in conservation depends on progress in other mycological disciplines, such as taxonomy, distribution and ecology. Therefore I shall pay some attention to these disciplines as well.

Fifteen species of clavarioid Basidiomycetes belonging to the Cantharellales, Gomphales, and Lachnocladiales are described from Korup National Park, South West Province, Cameroon. Aphelaria korupensis, A. subglobispora, Clavaria afrolutea, Clavulina coffeoflava, Pterula anomala, P crassispora, and R parvispora are described as new. The new combination Clavulina ramosior is proposed, based on C. cavipes var. ramosior. Gomphus clavatus var. parvisporus is considered a synonym of G. brunneus.

Intensive recording of c. 380 m2 of an impoverished garden lawn on the western outskirts of Bristol (v-c. 6), three times a month for a period of 7 years, yielded well over 10,000 sporophores belonging to nearly 90 species of macro-fungi. Their status in the community is briefly indicated and, for the principal species, their seasonal productivity and behaviour in successive years is discussed in relation to meteorological influences, chiefly rainfall and temperature. Further aspects of fruiting behaviour, and any special problems in identification and nomenclature (especially as they might be encountered by amateur mycologists) are discussed for 68 species individually. Among these are 51 agarics including Agaricus (4 spp.), Conocybe (4 spp., with a discussion of a further 7 spp. provisionally included within C. ‘tenera’), Deconica sp., Dermoloma cuneifolium, Galerina clavata and G. graminea, Inocybe brunnea and I. pusio, Leptonia (5 spp.), Marasmius (3 spp.), Mycena (7 spp., including M. mairei, M. olivaceomarginata and M. swartzii), Nolanea papillata and N. sericea, and Tubaria (3 spp.); also, in the other groups, Clavaria (2 spp.) and Clavulinopsis (4 spp.), 3 Gasteromycete species, Sclerotinia trifoliorum and Trichoglossum hirsutum, Penicillium claviforme and the Myxomycete Physarum cinereum.

Light and electron microscopic investigations of the roots of Rhododendron and other ericaceous plants growing in the vicinity of Clavaria fruiting structures showed a fungal infection consistently associated with the epidermal and cortical cells of the "hair roots." Uninfected hair roots consisted of an epidermis and a one cell thick cortical layer surrounding the stele. Secondary growth in the stele and formation of a cork layer by division of the pericycle caused the cortex and epidermis to slough as the root matured. The structure of the infected hair roots was similar except for the presence of fungus in epidermal and cortical cells. As judged by the appearance of septa, at least two fungi were involved, one with dolipore septa that formed hyphal coils in the infected cells, and one with septa associated with Woronin bodies that occurred as single hyphal strands. Hyphae were found penetrating the cells from the exterior of the root and also passing from cell to cell. No correlation between fungal infection and the phenolic content of the cells could be made. Dissolution of both the fungal and host cytoplasm appeared to occur as the cells were sloughed. It appears that the fungus–root relationship is complex and is limited in duration to a short period of time during the development of the hair roots.

Antisera were prepared from fruiting structures of a Clavaria sp. found growing in the vicinity of Rhododendron plants and from mycelium of Pezizella ericae grown in culture. The antisera were used for the detection and differentiation of fungi in thin sections of roots of Rhododendron by an indirect immunocytochemical procedure using colloidal gold-labelled goat antirabbit immunoglobin G. Three distinct fungal types could be detected in roots: hyphae that reacted only with the Clavaria antiserum; hyphae that reacted only with the Pezizella antiserum; and hyphae that did not react with either antiserum.

Summary A close physiological relationship between some ericaceous plants, Rhododendron sp. and Pieris japonica, and a member of the genus Clavaria is indicated by radioisotope translocation studies. [14C] photosynthate from host leaves was detected in Clavaria fruiting bodies and 25P applied to Clavaria fruiting bodies was detected in plant roots. Possible transfer mechanisms, including that of a mycorrhizal association, are discussed.

Clavaria flavescens, C. flava, C. aurea, C. pallida, and C. rubella, species originally described by J. C. Schaeffer and currently placed in Ramaria, are reexamined and redescribed in modern terms following studies of original literature and specimens from type localities. OVER THE YEARS, species described in early, eventually obscure literature are often invested with characters not originally included, or their descriptions changed to fit a similar local organism. In many cases, these names come to represent a composite "taxon," and it becomes necessary to redefine the name more closely to allow more accurate identification of the taxon truly described. In Ramaria, for example, two names in extremely common usage throughout the world are R. (Clavaria) flava and R. (Clavaria) aurca. The impression is created that these "two" taxa are cosmopolitan, found either in typical or variant form on every continent. In fact, even in Europe where the names originated, contradictory concepts of their identities abound, including several apparently undescribed or moribund taxa, viz. C. flava Schaeffer vs. C. flava sensu Bresadola. Of the oldest and most popular names are those coined by Jacob Christian Schaeffer. Schaeffer's home and collecting grounds were in Bavaria, in and near Regensburg, and it is essential to sample the fungus flora of that region to become acquainted with the taxa he described. In some instances (i.e., Clavaria rufescens) I am not yet convinced that modern circumscriptions of Schaeffer's names are possible, although convincing clues are becoming available. In other cases, however, I feel that modern identities are possible, as reported here. Schaeffer authored two major works (Schaeffer 1759, 1762, 1763, 1774a, b) the second of which was composed of four volumes. The date of appearance of Schaeffer's last volume is uncertain. Although the title page reads 1800, a number of literature citations to Schaeffer's names exist before that date, convincing me that the date following Schaeffer's preface, 1774, is correct, as Donk (personal communication) regarded it. Several considerations enter into a search for identities for such classic species. First, when ac1 Received for publication 23 July 1973. This project was supported in part by National Science Foundation Grant GB 32104 and represents contribution No. 416 from the Botanical Laboratories, University of Tennessee. curate color is essential to identification, as in Ramaria, examination of one copy of such handcolored illustrations is not enough. Accordingly, I have examined Schaeffer's volumes at K, NCU, NY, L, Lloyd Library (Cincinnati), Universitait Regensburg, and Universite de Liege. Given minor color discrepancies in individual copies (i.e., the color of C. flava in the volumes at Liege), the color is astonishingly consistent throughout the distribution. Second, subsequent literature is important only as the authors had personal links to the original author. For example, Persoon's (1800) commentary on Schaeffer's work and Fries' publications cannot be trusted to reliably reflect Schaeffer's concepts, for neither author had personal connection with Schaeffer but only possessed the same evidence as all subsequent authors. Third, when herbarium material in subsequent extralimital classic herbaria (e.g., Swedish specimens in herb. Fries) seems to fulfill Schaeffer's description, care must be taken to ascertain the occurrence of such taxa in the Bavarian "topotype" area. Strangely, specimens of this genus from Bavaria are not common, but the exsiccati of Starcs, relatively widely distributed (in USA at BPI and NY to my knowledge), and specimens in herb. Killermann at Munich often verify distribution of such taxa. Finally, descriptions that differ from those of Schaeffer must be examined carefully. For example, the notion that the fruit body base in R. flava stains deep red or winecolored apparently arose fairly early, possibly in Fries' concept. Bresadola (1932) illustrated R. flava with a red base, and his concept was perpetuated by Konrad & Maublanc (1926) and Corner (1950, 1966, 1970). The idea was not mentioned or illustrated by Schaeffer and, consequently, must be rejected. It may be argued that Schaeffer's illustrations must serve as types for his specific epithets, so only representative specimens are specified herein. Colors are cited from Seguy (1936) by numbers in parentheses followed by S, and from Ridgway (1912) in quotes. Recipes for macrochemicals may be found in Singer (1962) and Marr and

Plants of this group have been reported very rarely from this country. Clavaria juncea is listed by Dr. Peck in the 22d Report of the New York State Museum from specimens collected by Dr. Howe, and Peck says this was the first report of the species from America. It has been recently reported from Michigan by Kauffman. Clement's illustration in Minnesota Plant Studies, IV: p. 113, evidently refers to a form of the Clavaria vermicularis group. Dr. Peck found a single specimen of Clazlaria fistulosa in the Catskill Mountains in October, 1872, and this is the only collection of the species outside of Europe mentioned in the Sylloge. Professor Dearness collected the species in coniferous swamps at Avon, Canada, in October, 1897, and it was distributed in Fungi Columb. 1214 under the name Clavaria inaequalis. Professor Dearness has sent me specimens of the collection correctly named.

Revised descriptions are given of Clavaria atrofusca Vel., C. corbieri Bourd. & Galz., C. crosslandii Cotton, C. greletii Bourd., and C. rosea Fr. New species and varieties described are C. argillacea Fr. var. pusilla from England, C. congesta from Java, C. greletii Bourd. var. grandispora from Brazil, C. longispora from U.S.A., C. martinii from Panama, C. neofossicola and C. rosea Fr. var. grandispora and var. pallida from tropical America. Excluded species are C. falcatispora Vel., C. parasitica Viegas & Texeira, C. tonkinensis Pat. Notes are also included on C. alliacea Corner, C. gibbsiae Rambs. C. minima Corner. C. tenuibes Berk. & Br., C. vermicularis Fr., C. zollingeri Lev.

Evidence is given for acceptance of Clavaria inaequalis Müller ex Fr. as a valid species, including description of a specimen from the herbarium of Fries. Four species of Clavaria (including C. californica Pet., sp. nov. and C. neonigrita Pet., sp. nov.) are described with spiny spores, and comments on their phylogenetic relationships are made. A discussion of the appropriateness of separation of Clavaria from Clavulinopsis is included with special reference to Clavaria longispora, Clavulinopsis appalachiensis, and Clavulinopsis corallino-rosacea. Clavaria americana Pet., sp. nov., is proposed.

The rudiments of basidiospores are generally subglobose. Either they remain so by swelling outward from the tip of the sterigma, or, more commonly, they become ellipsoid in a direction practically parallel with the long axis of the basidium. In many species with ellipsoid spores there is a great range in length of the mature spores but comparatively little in width. Such spores continually change shape as they grow, becoming more and more elongate; and one would expect, therefore, that closely related species, differing mainly in spore size, should have differently shaped spores. The tendency is to classify species according to the shape of the spore and to separate species according to its size. The method seems unnatural and, as it may seriously affect systematy, I have studied the problem in groups of very closely related species. The initial difficulty has been to discover such groups because local floras do not necessarily contain very closely related species. Thus, Amanita muscaria and A. rubescens, Paxillus involutus and P. atrotomentosus, or Clavaria argillacea and C. vermicularis are not very closely related, for each has much closer tropical allies. For the purpose of discovering affinities and, so, of arriving at truly mycological comparisons, I have monographed the species of Clavaria and allied genera. The results suggest a fundamental law of hyphal growth, and I have accordingly abstracted a few illustrations and added some examples from other groups in order to give a general account.

Summary The members of the Hysteriales were at first confused with lichens, certain of which they resemble: Early workers inevitably drew up vague descriptions of these fungi. The name of the group is based on the genus Hysterium, which was first used by Tode. The type species is H. pulicare , the name of which can be traced back to Lightfoot. Persoon succeeded in bringing a number of similar forms together, largely by an inclusive interpretation of the genus Hysterium. Chevallier first used the name “Hysterineae” for an order, and he also separated into another order certain genera now included in the Phacidiales. This work has been generally overlooked in considering the beginning of a separate grouping of these fungi. Corda used the family name Hysteriaceae to include also the Phacidiales; most other workers, down to the middle of the 19th century, including Fries, placed the genera now classified in the Hysteriales with the Phacidiales. The genera came finally to be distinguished principally on the basis of the colour, shape, and septation of spores. There has always been confusion in the use of names to distinguish orders, sub-orders, families, etc.; indeed, the same name is sometimes used by a writer in two senses: see Corda's arrangement. Several mycologists (Saccardo, Spegazzini, von Hoehnel(76), and others) include all the genera in one family; if von Hoehnel's contentions that Dichaena should be placed in a separate family, and that the Hypodermataceae, Ostropaceae, and Acrospermaceae all belong elsewhere, should be followed, only the family Hysteriaceae is left of those now usually (64, 67, 71) included in the order. The Hysteriales have been placed in the Pyrenomycetes and Discomycetes about equally commonly, which indicates clearly that they form a transitional group ; Rehm (67) compromised by placing them intermediately. Certain genera have likewise undergone a great amount of shuffling; the most conspicuous example being Acrospermum (which Tode(13, p. 8) described as “Fungus simplicissimus”!), which has been placed, as noted herein, in Clavaria, Sclerotiaceae, Tremella, Phacidiales, Hysteriales, Pseudohysterineae, Sordariaceae and recently by Riddle ((78) agreeing with Ellis and Everhart) in the Hypocreales. The most recent tendency is to reduce considerably the number of genera included in the Hysteriales. Pycnidial stages, attributed to the Hysteriales, have been noted by certain workers (54, 64); these are usually hysterioid in nature, and include Leptostroma and Psilospora. Many workers not mentioned herein have described species, extended the knowledge of the distribution, or added other data regarding the Hysteriales. It is obvious, however, that the group is still in need of comparative and synthetic study.

John Quekett described, in his lectures at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1851–1852, certain tubes or canals as being very frequently met with in the skeletons of corals; and in his Lectures on Histology, published in 1854, and which contained the subject matter of his previous discourses, he wrote as follows: “Confervoid growths also are very frequently met with in the skeletons of corals, as all these bodies possess animal matter which, decomposing after death, becomes a nidus for the development of confervae; and hardly a section can be examined without exhibiting such an appearance as shown in fig. 78”. This figure shows long, short, and almost straight canals cutting across the normal coral structure at different angles. In 1859 Kolliker gave the results of his examination of some corals to the Royal Society, in a communication “On the frequent occurrence of vegetable parasites in the hard structures of animals”. He said:—“All the genera of corals which I investigated contained parasitical fungi, viz. Astraea diffusa, Porites clavaria, Tubipora musica, Corallium rubrum, Oculina diffusa, Oculina sp., Alloporina mirabilis, Madrepora cornuta, Lophohelia prolifera and Nullipora alcicornis. The fungi were most frequent in the genera Tubipora, Astraea, Porites and Oculina, the last three of which contained also many sporangia, which in the red coral were very scarce or wanting” Before Quekett lectured, and contemporaneously with his and Kolliker9s researches, Dr. Carpenter and C. Wedl investigated the corresponding tubes or canals in shells; and the last-named naturalist communicated a most admirable paper on

The following species are proposed as lectotypes : Clavaria botrytis Fr. for Ramaria Holmsk. ex S. F. Gray emend . Donk. Lachnocladium brasiliense Lev. for Lachnocladium Lev. Pterulap lumosa (Schw.) Fr. for Pterula Fr. Cladaria Ritgen is a synonym of Ramaria Holmsk. ex S. F. Gray. Donkella Doty is a synonym of Clavulinopsis van Overeem. Detailed arguments are provided with reference to original material of the type-species and to extensive monographic revision.

In wood lot, Corvallis. December. Frequent. No. 2076. 3. Clavaria myceliosa Peck. In coniferous woods, Corvallis. October to November. Fre? quent. No. 2032. 4. Clavaria formosa Fries. In coniferous and mixed woods, Corvallis and Blue River. October to November. Nos. 2158, 2407. Branches wrinkled, blunt, dichotomous above, light ochraceousbuff to light ochraceous-salmon, turning deep vinaceous in all parts when bruised. 5. Clavaria occidentalis n. sp. Fructifications simple or seldom once-forked, single or caespitose, narrowly clavate, often flattened with longitudinal furrows on larger plants, up to 15 cm. long and 4 to 8 mm. broad, Rood's brown when fresh, drying wood brown, concolorous throughout except whitish at base in larger plants; odor pleasant, taste slightly acrid; flesh white; internal structure in central portion hollow to stuffed with meshy strands of filaments, gradually passing to a subhymenial layer of soft pseudoparenchyma; basidia subcylindrical to clavate, 55-74 X 7-9 jx, 2-4-spored; spores ellipsoidal to inequilateral, hyaline, granular, one-guttulate, asperu

Corner, E. J. H. 1950. A monograph of Clavaria and allied genera. Oxford Univ. Press, London. 740 p. . 1966. A monograph of cantharelloid fungi. Ann. Bot. Mem. No. 2. Oxford University Press, London. 255 p. . 1970. Supplement to "A monograph of Clavaria and allied genera." Beiheft zur Nova Hedwigia, Heft 33. Verlag Von J. Cramer, Berlin. 299 p. Harrison, Kenneth A., and Alexander H. Smith. 1968. Some new species and distribution records of Rhizopogon in North America. Canad. J. Bot. 46: 881-899. Ridgway, R. 1912. Color standards and color nomenclature. Publ. by the author. Washington, D. C. 43 p. Wells, Virginia L., and Phyllis E. Kempton. 1968. A preliminary study of Clavariadelphiis in North America. Michigan Bot. 7: 35-57.

During the summer and fall of 1951 and 1952, clavarioid fungi were collected in quantity throughout northern Michigan. Especially productive were the Tahquamenon Falls State Park near Paradise and the country surrounding the University of Michigan Biological Station near Cheboygan. In the course of studying collections obtained from these areas and those in the University of Michigan Herbarium, four new species and three new varieties were found. A discussion of the distinguishing features of each taxon and a com? parison of these with related species can be found in Leathers.2 The study was made under the direction of Dr. A. H. Smith, to whom I am indebted for his suggestions and criticism as well as for his help in securing collections and photographs. Sincere thanks are due to Prof. H. H. Bartlett for writing the Latin translations and to Dr. A. H. Stockard, Director of the University of Michigan Biological Station for making the facilities of the station available after the regular sessions had ended. I am also grateful to Dr. E. B. Mains and Dr. B. B. Kanouse for their generous loan of specimens from the University of Michigan Herbarium.