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The establishment of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) has been adopted as intervention to safeguard the wildlife and their habitats outside the core protected areas in Tanzania. Along with their conservation role, WMAs provide an opportunity for local communities to derive economic benefits from wildlife-based enterprises on their land. WMAs primarily rely on revenues generated from photographic and hunting tourism to support operational activities and create incentives for the local communities to conserve wildlife resources. The current global travel restrictions and lockdown caused by an outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic have reduced a vital funding source for WMAs. This, therefore, undermines the ability to manage the wildlife resources and reward communities for the opportunity cost of their land and other costs associated with coexisting with wildlife. This chapter examines the extent to which the decline of tourism revenues as a result of the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic has affected WMAs as a framework for local communities to manage and benefit from wildlife. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews on five WMAs in Northern Tanzania that were purposively selected based on their ability to generate a significant amount of revenues from tourism. Findings show that the decline of tourism revenues triggers unprecedented adverse effects on the conservation of wildlife resources within WMAs. Livelihood of the local communities is also affected due to loss of employment opportunities and drop-off of tourism income obtained from the sales of local goods to the tourists and tourist hotels. We recommend the creation of local mechanisms for revenue acquisition that are more resilient to global shocks, diversifying revenue-generating options within WMAs, and putting in place the right funding model that would warrant WMAs sustainability.

The Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) is a protected area and UNESCO World Heritage Site and part of the Serengeti‐Ngorongoro Biosphere reserve in northern Tanzania. It is famous for its large volcanic caldera, unique cultural heritage, early hominid fossils and significant wildlife populations. NCA has been managed as a multiple land‐use area since 1959, a designation intended to foster a harmonious coexistence between indigenous residents and wildlife (Goldstein, 2004).

Conservation challenges such as human population growth, land use changes, human-wildlife conflicts, poaching, encroachment, wildlife diseases and pollution, among others, have grown in recent decades. Their solutions and policy responses require scientific approaches based on informed decisions. This chapter seeks to inform the contribution of research in addressing wildlife poaching in Tanzania, one of the serious management challenges facing the wildlife sector in the country. It reviews a number of publications to establish contribution of numerous scientific studies on wildlife poaching conducted in Tanzania. The review identifies different ways in which research can contribute in combating the problem—including establishing status and trends of poaching, understanding the drivers and effects of poaching, inspiring interventions at different levels and recommending the appropriate policy actions and strategies.

Studies have demonstrated that wildlife conservation success depends on local people’s attitudes toward wildlife. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 240 respondents living in five village...

Tanzania, like many other developing countries, has experienced rapid population growth and urbanization in the past five decades. Its population has grown from 8,000,000 in 1961 to over 50,000,000 currently, and this population is projected to double in the next two decades. This growth is also notable around the wildlife-protected areas. Using existing literature and personal experience, this chapter reviews the major aspects related to wildlife conservation in relation to human population growth and urbanization. Using examples from different parts of Tanzania, this chapter provides highlights on the trends and causes of human population growth and urbanization in areas bordering wildlife-protected areas and the effects brought about by these trends. The chapter presents the repercussions caused by these trends on the population of large mammals and other wildlife species. Recommendations are provided on how best to minimize the negative impacts that human population growth and urbanization cause on large mammals.

Poaching is increasingly threatening the survival of numerous species in protected areas. However, information on how poachers work afield is sparse—especially in East Africa. Understanding how and where poachers work is an important step toward improving wildlife ranger patrols and, therefore, success of law enforcement practices. This study used observations from two years of fieldwork in the Serengeti ecosystem in northern Tanzania and volunteered information from ex-poachers to highlight poachers’ tactics and adaptability to avoid detection and arrest while committing crimes. Using available theories in criminology and socio-sciences, we uncovered ten strategies that poachers employ to avoid detection and arrest by rangers, sustain wildlife poaching, and supply wildlife products to illegal wildlife markets. We argue that increasing wildlife crimes related to bushmeat and high-value trophies such as ivory and rhino horns may have influenced adaptability in the strategies employed by poachers while operating afield. Possible options for improving detection of illegal activities afield, therefore reducing the supply of wildlife products to illegal markets, and saving the target species from decline are discussed. This information has a potential to improve wildlife crime detection and prevention by the wildlife rangers. It is also important for programs aiming at curbing wildlife crime within and outside the protected areas.

Wildlife crime is increasingly gaining prominence in global environmental debates. The crime, generating huge financial returns to few individuals, has far reaching implications on ecology, economy and global security. The seriousness of these implications provides sufficient rationale for reconsidering and intensifying efforts to combat this crime. However, these efforts are compromised by a number of challenges, though opportunities for success exist. This paper presents some of these challenges and opportunities available for reversing the trend of wildlife crime in Tanzania. The challenges presented include poverty, high profit associated with illicit trade on wildlife, poor governance and corruption, minimal budget and inadequate institutional support, political interference and low employee morale, minimal benefits to local communities, human population growth, climate change and HIV/AIDS pandemic. Opportunities identified include increased public awareness, growing global political concern and commitment, presence of relevant policies, programmes and strategies along with international agreements supportive to species protection. Before embarking on challenges and opportunities, the paper provides an overview of Tanzania’s wildlife resources, status and trend of this crime. In conclusion, the paper underscores the gravity of the problem and its implications and offers some recommendations for improving the situation.

Over the past six years, elephant poaching and the illicit ivory trade have attracted global attention and Tanzania has been slated as one of the worst offenders. During the 2013 CITES Conference of the Parties in Bangkok, Tanzania, along with Kenya, Uganda, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Thailand and China were labeled “the gang of eight”, singled out as being instrumental in fueling the illegal ivory trade either as suppliers, transit countries, or consumers. Individuals, conservation groups and local and international media have accused the Tanzanian government of inaction and have linked the current slaughter of elephants to increased criminality, corruption, the proliferation of firearms, the failure of the judicial system and a perception that Tanzania is a sanctuary for criminals. Besides tarnishing the image of the country, elephant poaching has undesirable effects on the ecological, economic and security aspects. This paper explores these effects and highlights the need for reversing the current trend of this crime. The paper provides an historical overview of poaching in Tanzania and urges for immediate action to halt the crime. Focusing on factors that are considered key in driving poaching, the paper recommends some proactive measures that should be adopted in order to reverse the current trend. The paper highlights the positive outcomes the adoption of these measures could have for conservation efforts.

The COVID-19 pandemic presents a potential threat to wildlife resources in Africa. In this review, using Tanzania as a case, we examine the impacts and risks that wildlife sectors in Africa are facing or are likely to face as a result of this pandemic. We recognize loss of revenues from tourism as a major impact that could negatively influence the management of wildlife species and habitats. Loss of tourism revenues reduces capacity of the conservation agencies to fund conservation operations and support the benefit sharing schemes. Furthermore, it undermines the efficacy of conservation to compete with alternative economic activities which are ecologically damaging. Increased unemployment and household poverty due to closure of businesses may exacerbate wildlife crime and unsustainable activities. Additionally, contributions from donor-funding organizations and development partners cannot be guaranteed as revenues may be diverted to support other sectors including health. In order to address and minimize the impacts and reduce the risks to the wildlife sector, the following policy measures are recommended: ensure adequate budget for conservation; develop a crisis management plan; reconsider protocols for conducting wildlife trade; develop a comprehensive tourism recovery plan; promote scientific studies focusing on zoonoses and adopt a One-Health Approach as a matter of urgency in dealing with COVID-19 and future pandemics.

Conservation crimes are posing serious threats to wildlife species and biodiversity of the Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi-Game-Reserves. Devising effective strategies to reduce risks to as low as reasonably possible of these crimes, calls for adequate information on factors driving people to commit these crimes. Data for this study were obtained from 315 respondents in 20 villages and 316 people who were arrested for committing different conservation crimes in the Rungwa-Kizigo-Muhesi-Game-Reserves. Our results suggest that arrested respondents were typically young adult males with limited alternative sources of income and owning virtually no livestock or land. There were heterogeneous drivers for each type of conservation crime. To address the challenge of conservation crimes in the Reserve, we recommend, among other strategies, the establishment of effective conservation education programmes, strengthening law enforcements as a deterrence method, and development of entrepreneurship skills to enhance employment. Keywords: Bushmeat poaching, Conservation criminology, Elephant, Illegal timber logging, Wildlife poaching

Objective To assess molecular characterization, distribution, seasonal activities of sandfly species and Leishmania parasites infecting them for this zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis focus. Methods The collections were carried out in 2009–2011 using CDC traps, Sticky Papers and manual aspirator in and around the villages in Abarkouh district. Individual sandflies were characterized by PCR amplification and sequencing of fragments of their mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Leishmania parasite infections within sandflies were performed by targeting Cyt b, ITS-rDNA, k-DNA and microsatellite genes. Results The PCR assays detected only Leishmania major (L. major). All infections (30) were found in the abundant and widespread vector Phlebotomus papatasi (P. papatasi). Small numbers of other sandfly species were also screened for infections, but none was found. Sergentomyia sintoni and P. papatasi were the predominant members in all locations of this district and in all habitats throughout the trapping season. Only five other sandfly species were found, namely Phlebotomus ansari, Phlebotomus caucasicus, Phlebotomus sergenti, Sergentomyia dentata and Sergentomyia merviney. Conclusions In the current survey, the only infections detected are of L. major in females of P. papatasi (30 out of 190). The rates of infection of P. papatasi by L. major are not significantly different in compare with other locations in Iran with no diversity of parasite strains. Zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis may have emerged only recently in Abarkouh district, and the reason may well be the instability of the transmission cycles there.

In an opinion letter??to Nature (September 2010), Dobson et al. (2010) oppose the planned road through northern Tanzania that crosses Serengeti National Park (SNP). They contend that the road will jeopardize the Serengeti ecosystem by interrupting the wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) migratory corridor. This opinion is supported by other scientists using mathematical models (Holdo et al. 2011). However, all arguments presented against the project have been questioned (Homewood et al. 2010). As has often been the case in the conservation of African natural resources, some scientists present views that do not account for other key components of conservation: economic growth, reduction of poverty, improvement of quality of life, and social well-being. As scientists working in Serengeti, we believe that the published reports about the Serengeti road mislead the world about its potential effects on the ecosystem.

Serengeti National Park is a world class icon for wildlife tourism attracting a diverse group of tourists from all over the world. The park has played a pivotal role in protecting large populations of wildlife species of the Eastern African savannah and the globally outstanding biological phenomena such as the annual migration of wildebeest. However, the history of the park is also characterised by resource use conflicts and pressures that could threaten the current quality of the visitor environment. In this paper we examine the attitudes of international visitors toward the management and attributes of the park. Overall, the tourists report a high degree of satisfaction with most aspects of their trip. Yet, the current tourists are concerned about possible future changes that could alter the visitor environment and idealized images of the African wild lands. Basic environmental attitudes (degrees of ecocentrism) have effects on attitudes toward management of the park. Tourists expressing a high degree of ecocentrism are more likely to support management actions aimed at controlling tourism activities, access and impacts. They also express a stronger interest in experiencing nature, wilderness and local culture. The results are discussed in light of the major impact factors and conservation issues facing the management of Serengeti National Park; poaching, poverty in surrounding communities, increasing population pressure, habitat degradation, and wildlife diseases.

The limited capacity of governments in developing countries to service primary health care has resulted in a rapid increase in use of indigenous medicinal plants. This increase, together with other biological and non-biological factors, has rendered these plants vulnerable to over-use and extirpation. Domestication is a conservation intervention that can relieve pressure on medicinal species. In order to ensure effectiveness and sustainability of an intervention, understanding the influencing factors is imperative. We examined the influence of gender and some socio-economic factors on domestication of medicinal plants in the West Usambara Mountains of northern Tanzania. Participatory wealth ranking, structured and semi-structured interviews, botanical surveys and participant observations were employed in data collection. Results showed that domestication has played a fundamental role in conservation of medicinal plants in the study area. Forty (89%) and twelve (27%) of forty-five indigenous plant species ...

Both colonial and post-colonial conservation policies ignored the potential role of traditional African cultural practices in contributing to conservation goals. Recently, there has been a growing global interest in these practices, although recognition in official conservation policies is still minimal in many countries. This global interest is enthused by the reality that although the use of wild species and their habitats remains the foundation for human survival all over the world, there is a huge risk of losing these species. Factors such as rapid human population increase, inadequate local support for conservation policies, limited strategies for survival among local communities and inadequate capacity of the government to fund law enforcement operations against illegal activities subject the species and habitats to unsustainable use. Traditional cultural practices, among other strategies, have promising potential to enhance sustainable resource use and conservation and, therefore, realize the desir...

The study on importance of traditional practices in conservation of medicinal plants in West Usambara Mountains, Tanzania was conducted by using focus group discussions, interviews, participant observation, and botanical survey. Nine traditional practices for conservation of wild plants were identified as domestication; beliefs in sacredness of trees; beliefs in sacred forests; respect of cultural forests; protection of plants at the burial sites; selective harvesting; secrecy; collection of deadwood for firewood, and use of energy-saving traditional stoves. Through botanical surveys of sacred forests, cultural forests, farms/homesteads, and burial sites, some 1,518 wild plants belonging to 100 species were identified. A large proportion (85%) of these plants had medicinal value. Of the 173 respondents, 82%, 81%, 74%, and 71% believed that sustainable use and conservation of medicinal plants can be achieved through secrecy, plant protection at burial sites, sacredness of plants and domestication, respectively. About 89% of the respondents pursued domestication (at least five plants each) and 70% had retained sacred trees (at least one tree each), of which the majority had medicinal value. Few respondents were aware of the positive role played by sacred forests and cultural forests (38% and 21%, respectively) in conservation of medicinal plants. It is concluded that the traditional management practices have a significant role in the conservation of biodiversity. This conservation role has a direct connection with human health since most of the plant species have medicinal value, which a majority of the rural people rely on. The paper recommends that traditional management practices should be encouraged since they serve a dual purpose as important conservation strategy and as an essential component of primary health care.

Summary Community-based management of protected areas has become a strong political objective worldwide. Many African countries have responded to this challenge, albeit with mixed results. Tanzania which is known for its abundant populations of wildlife in national parks has also developed several projects and institutions to improve people–park relationships. So far however, there is little evidence that community-based programmes have had any significant effect on management strategies, benefit distribution, or alleviating poverty. In this paper, we examine a part of this complex in the Western Corridor of Serengeti National Park in Tanzania. We address the basic questions of what is the extent of contact between park staff and the communities, what benefits are provided, and what needs do the communities see? There is little interaction between the park and adjacent communities, and while support is given to community projects, minimal benefits are distributed to the household or individual level. The current situation seems incapable of facilitating improved people–park relationships.

© 2012 Kideghesho and Msuya, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Managing the Wildlife Protected Areas in the Face of Global Economic Recession, HIV/AIDS Pandemic, Political Instability and Climate Change: Experience of Tanzania

Agroforestry has been defined as a dynamic, ecologically-based natural resources management system that, through the integration of trees in agricultural landscapes, diversifies and sustains production for increased social, economic and environmental benefits (Leakey, 1996; ICRAF, 2007). The system is increasingly considered as a solution for limited available resources and is rapidly emerging as a response to global sustainable development goals due to key role it plays in transforming livelihoods and landscapes (ICRAF, 2008). It provides diverse benefits including inter alia enhancing biodiversity, climate change adaptation and mitigation, food security, and reducing rural poverty by increasing soil fertility and crop yields.

We investigated the availability, preference, and consumption of indigenous forest foods in Uluguru North (UNM) and West Usambara Mountains (WUM) of Tanzania. Data collection techniques involved focus group discussion, structured questionnaires, and botanical identification. Results revealed (1) there were 114 indigenous forest food plant species representing 57 families used by communities living adjacent to the two mountains; (2) sixty-seven species supplied edible fruits, nuts and seeds: 24 and 14 species came from WUM and UNM, respectively, while 29 came from both study areas; (3) of the 57 identified vegetable species, 22 were found in WUM only, 13 in UNM only, and 12 in both areas; (4) there were three species of edible mushrooms and five species of roots and tubers; (5) unlike the indigenous roots and tubers, the preference and consumption of indigenous vegetables, nuts, and seeds/oils was higher than exotic species in both study areas; and (6) UNM had more indigenous fruits compared to WUM, although preference and consumption was higher in WUM. We recommend increased research attention on forest foods to quantify their contribution to household food security and ensure their sustainability.

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