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Knowledge on cheetah population densities across their current range is limited. Therefore, new and efficient assessment tools are needed to gain more knowledge on species distribution, ecology and behaviour. Scat detection dogs have emerged as an efficient and non-invasive method to monitor elusive and vulnerable animal species, like cheetahs, due to the dog’s superior olfactory system. However, the success of locating scat using detection dogs can be significantly improved under suitable weather conditions. We examined the impact of temperature, humidity and wind speed on detection rates of scat from cheetahs during a scat detection dog survey in Northern Kenya. We found that average wind speed positively influences the scat detection rate of detection dogs working on leash. Humidity showed no significant influence. Temperature showed a strong negative correlation with humidity and thus was excluded from our model analyses. While it is likely that wind speed is especially invalid for dogs working off leash, this study did not demonstrate this. Wind speed could thus influence the success of monitoring cheetahs or other target species. Our findings help to improve the survey and thus maximise the coverage of study area and the collection of target samples of elusive and rare species.

Neogene orogenesis and climatic cycles strongly influenced inter- and intraspecific differentiation and variability of taxa. In this study, we focused on the southern margin of the western Palaearctic, known to be a geographically complex region. We performed mitochondrial DNA analyses of Buthus scorpions from the Moroccan Atlas Mountains, from the Hoggar Mountains in Algeria and from Tunisia, Iberia and Israel. Molecular species delimitation suggests the existence of ≥ 24 molecular operational taxonomic units. The data confirm complex differentiation patterns across the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, but structures in Iberia, Algeria and Tunisia have considerably lower complexity. This identifies the Atlas Mountain region as the most important differentiation centre of Buthus scorpions. Samples from the Hoggar Mountains (southern Algeria) cluster with those from the southernmost parts of Morocco in the middle and upper parts of the Draa Valley. This reinforces a recent connection of these regions. Samples from Israel are genetically similar to individuals from eastern Algeria and Tunisia. This suggests a widespread group across major parts of North Africa. Divergence time estimates indicate that differentiation in the genus began during the late Miocene, a period characterized by strong tectonic activities in this region. Further differentiation could be linked to subsequent climatic changes that have occurred since the end of the Miocene, with an increasing aridification of the Moroccan area. This also produced many microrefugia in the mountains of the area during the Pleistocene climatic fluctuations.

Drivers of evolution are often related to geographical isolation and/or diverging environmental conditions. Spatial variation in neutral genetic markers mostly reflects past geographical isolation, i.e. long-lasting allopatry, whereas morphology is often driven by local environmental conditions, resulting in more rapid evolution. In Europe, most thermophilic species persisted during the past glacial periods in geographically disjunct refugia, representing long-lasting isolates, frequently with diverging environmental conditions. This situation has driven the evolution of intraspecific signatures in species. Here, we analysed wing shape and wing pigmentation of the chalk-hill blue butterfly, Polyommatus coridon, across its entire distribution range restricted to the western Palaearctic. In addition, we compiled abiotic environmental parameters for each sampling site. Wing colour patterns differentiated a western and an eastern lineage. These lineages might represent two main Pleistocene refugia and differentiation centres, one located on the Italian Peninsula and the other in the Balkan region. The two lineages showed evidence of hybridization across Central Europe, from the Alps and across Germany. The intraspecific differentiation was strongest in the width of the brown band on the outer margin of the wings. The morphological structures obtained are in line with genetic signatures found in previous studies, but the latter are more fine-grained. Current environmental conditions, such as mean temperatures, were only marginally correlated with colour patterns. Our study underlines that Pleistocene range shifts, often resulting in allopatric isolation, shape intraspecific phenotypic structures within species; that pigmentation responds in a more sensitive manner to spatial disjunction than wing shape; and that morphometric and genetic structures in P. coridon provide concordant patterns and thus support identical biogeographical conclusions.

Genetic diversity is of crucial importance for population fitness and the potential of populations to adapt to environmental change. Population-level genetic diversity is expected to be reduced in specialists having small and isolated populations. We analysed genetic structure and diversity in (pre-)Alpine populations of four Copper butterfly species, differing in the degree of habitat specialisation. Despite substantial variation among genetic markers and molecular indices, genetic diversity and thus evolutionary potential tended to be highest in Lycaena hippothoe and lowest in L. tityrus. Microsatellite analyses revealed that genetic diversity tended to be higher in L. hippothoe and L. virgaureae than in L. helle and L. tityrus. MDH sequencing indicated only few differences among species, while GAPDH sequencing showed higher genetic diversity in L. hippothoe and L. tityrus than in L. virgaureae and L. helle. In L. helle, populations showed strong genetic differentiation but without clear spatial structure, while the other species showed genetic differentiation among clusters according to cardinal directions. These results do not match our a priori predictions of a high genetic diversity in L. tityrus and a particularly low one in the glacial relict L. helle. We thus document that evolutionary potential is not necessarily constrained in relict taxa, and that predicting genetic diversity is challenging. Conservation status does not necessarily reflect genetic diversity at the species level. It thus seems to be more meaningful to focus on specific populations of concern to assess genetic vulnerability to environmental change.

The number of insect species and insect abundances decreased severely during the past decades over major parts of Central Europe. Previous studies documented declines of species richness, abundances, shifts in species composition, and decreasing biomass of flying insects. In this study, we present a standardized approach to quantitatively and qualitatively assess insect diversity, biomass, and the abundance of taxa, in parallel. We applied two methods: Malaise traps, and automated and active light trapping. Sampling was conducted from April to October 2018 in southern Germany, at four sites representing conventional and organic farming. Bulk samples obtained from Malaise traps were further analyzed using DNA metabarcoding. Larger moths (Macroheterocera) collected with light trapping were further classified according to their degree of endangerment. Our methods provide valuable quantitative and qualitative data. Our results indicate more biomass and higher species richness, as well as twice the number of Red List lepidopterans in organic farmland than in conventional farmland. This combination of sampling methods with subsequent DNA metabarcoding and assignments of individuals according depending on ecological characteristics and the degree of endangerment allows to evaluate the status of landscapes and represents a suitable setup for large‐scale long‐term insect monitoring across Central Europe, and elsewhere., Malaise trap on the grassland of organic farmland.

Weisser, Wolfgang W/0000-0002-2757-8959; Penone, Caterina/0000-0002-8170-6659; Schall, Peter/0000-0003-4808-818X; Bauhus, Jurgen/0000-0002-9673-4986 WOS: 000493807800042 PubMed: 31666721 Recent reports of local extinctions of arthropod species(1), and of massive declines in arthropod biomass(2), point to land-use intensification as a major driver of decreasing biodiversity. However, to our knowledge, there are no multisite time series of arthropod occurrences across gradients of land-use intensity with which to confirm causal relationships. Moreover, it remains unclear which land-use types and arthropod groups are affected, and whether the observed declines in biomass and diversity are linked to one another. Here we analyse data from more than 1 million individual arthropods (about 2,700 species), from standardized inventories taken between 2008 and 2017 at 150 grassland and 140 forest sites in 3 regions of Germany. Overall gamma diversity in grasslands and forests decreased over time, indicating loss of species across sites and regions. In annually sampled grasslands, biomass, abundance and number of species declined by 67%, 78% and 34%, respectively. The decline was consistent across trophic levels and mainly affected rare species; its magnitude was independent of local land-use intensity. However, sites embedded in landscapes with a higher cover of agricultural land showed a stronger temporal decline. In 30 forest sites with annual inventories, biomass and species number-but not abundance-decreased by 41% and 36%, respectively. This was supported by analyses of all forest sites sampled in three-year intervals. The decline affected rare and abundant species, and trends differed across trophic levels. Our results show that there are widespread declines in arthropod biomass, abundance and the number of species across trophic levels. Arthropod declines in forests demonstrate that loss is not restricted to open habitats. Our results suggest that major drivers of arthropod decline act at larger spatial scales, and are (at least for grasslands) associated with agriculture at the landscape level. This implies that policies need to address the landscape scale to mitigate the negative effects of land-use practices. DFGGerman Research Foundation (DFG) We thank T. Lewinsohn, S. Meyer and V. Wolters for their comments and suggestions for the analyses; M. Lutz, J. Bartezko, P. Freynhagen, I. Gallenberger, M. Turke, M. Lange, T. Kahl, E. Pasalic, E. Sperr, K. Kremer and all student helpers for conducting arthropod sampling in the field and laboratory; R. Achtziger, E. Anton, T. Blick, B. Buche, M.-A. Fritze, R. Heckmann, A. Kastner, F. Kohler, G. Kohler, T. Kolkebeck, C. Morkel, F. Schmolke, T. Wagner and O. Wiche for arthropod species identification; C. Seilwinder and R. Honecker for GIS work; the managers of the three Exploratories (K. Wells, S. Renner, K. Reichel-Jung, S. Gockel, K. Wiesner, K. Lorenzen, A. Hemp and M. Gorke) for their work in maintaining the site and project infrastructure; C. Fischer and S. Pfeiffer for giving support through the central office; A, Ostrowski, M. Owonibi and J. Nieschulze for managing the central database; and D. Hessenmoller, I. Schoning, F. Buscot and the late E. Kalko for their role in setting up the Biodiversity Exploratories project. The work has been funded by the DFG Priority Program 1374 'Infrastructure-Biodiversity-Exploratories'. Field work permits were issued by the responsible state environmental offices of Baden-Wurttemberg, Thuringen and Brandenburg.

The geographical distributions of species associated with European temperate broadleaf forests have been significantly influenced by glacial–interglacial cycles. During glacial periods, these species persisted in Mediterranean and extra-Mediterranean refugia and later, during interglacial periods, expanded northwards. The widespread saproxylic beetle Bolitophagus reticulatus depends closely on European temperate broadleaf forests. It usually develops in the tinder fungus Fomes fomentarius, a major decomposer of broadleaf-wood. We sampled B. reticulatus in sporocarps from European beech (Fagus sylvatica) and Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis) across Europe and the Caucasus region. We analysed mitochondrial gene sequences (cox1, cox2, cob) and 17 microsatellites to reconstruct the geographical distribution of glacial refugia and postglacial recolonization pathways. We found only marginal genetic differentiation of B. reticulatus, except for a significant split between populations of the Caucasus region and Europe. This indicates the existence of past refugia south of the Great Caucasus, and a contact zone with European populations in the Crimean region. Further potential refugia might have been located at the foothills of the Pyrenees and in the Balkan region. Our genetic data suggest a phalanx-wise recolonization of Europe, a reflection of the high mobility of B. reticulatus.

Warm-adapted species survived the cold stages of the past glacial-interglacial cycles in southern European peninsulas and recolonized major parts of Central and Northern Europe in the wake of postglacial warming. However, many of the genetic lineages which differentiated within these refugia predate even the Pleistocene. One of these refugia is the Italian Peninsula with its surrounding islands. In this meta-analysis, we compiled phylogeographic patterns of multiple species across this region. We transformed existing geographic information on 78 animal and plant species (with a total of 471 genetic lineages) within 17 predefined areas into presence/absence matrices. We elaborated three matrices: (i) only old lineages exclusively distinguished by deep splits, (ii) only young lineages distinguished by shallow (i.e. recent) splits, and (iii) presence/absence of the respective species. To infer biogeographic relationships between the predefined areas, we performed bootstrapped neighbour joining cluster analyses on these three matrices. In addition, we reviewed the geological history of Italy to identify causes of the observed biogeographic patterns. We found Sardinia and Corsica to be biogeographically closely linked with each other, and that they diverge strongly from all other regions. Sicily also diverges strongly from all other regions, while the intra-island differentiation was comparatively low. On the Italian mainland, Calabria exhibited the most pronounced biogeographic differentiation, often with several lineages present, resulting from old vicariance events within the region. Furthermore, southern Apulia and the Po Plain with adjoining areas of northern peninsular Italy displayed considerable distinctiveness. Admixture prevailed in the areas between these three regions. The ancient isolation of Sicily, as well as Sardinia plus Corsica, resulted in endemic lineages with only moderate recent exchange with adjacent mainland regions. Pronounced diversification occurs within the Italian Peninsula. The complex tectonic activities, such as shifting (micro)plates, submergence of major parts of peninsular Italy with the genesis of numerous Pliocene islands, in combination with the climatic cycles during the Pleistocene have most likely generated the current biogeographic pattern of species. Immigrations from the Balkan Peninsula into northern Italy partly accounted for the distinctiveness of this region. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12983-021-00418-9.

Species demanding specific habitat requirements suffer, particularly under environmental changes. The smallest owl of Africa, the Sokoke Scops Owl (Otus ireneae), occurs exclusively in East African coastal forests. To understand the movement behaviour and habitat demands of O. ireneae, we combined data from radio-tracking and remote sensing to calculate Species Distribution Models across the Arabuko Sokoke forest in southern Kenya. Based on these data, we estimated the local population size and projected the distribution of current suitable habitats. We found that the species occurs only in Cynometra woodland with large old trees and dense vegetation. Based on home range sizes and the distribution of suitable forest habitats, the local population size was estimated at O. ireneae, and of other specialist forest species, even further. Due to their close connection with intact Cynometra forest, O. ireneae is an excellent indicator of intact forest remnants. In addition, this species is a suitable flagship for the promotion and conservation of the last remaining coastal forests of East Africa.

Different methods to measure species behaviour and space use may produce diverging results, and provide advantages and shortcomings. Data from spot-mapping of animals might be affected from restricted detectability of individuals in dense vegetation, while radio-tracking provides a less biased (or even unbiased) measure of space use. Here we compare results from spot-mapping and telemetry of four family groups (i.e. five individuals belonging to these four family groups), respectively of the Kenyan endemic cooperative-breeding bird Hinde's babbler, Turdoides hindei. Data from spot-mapping showed that the space use of T. hindei is mostly restricted to riparian vegetation. Home-range sizes calculated from telemetry were five times larger if compared with data obtained from spot-mapping. Telemetry data showed that T. hindei also moves across agricultural land, and mean and maximum displacements are larger if compared with data obtained from spot-mapping. Several reasons might lead to these differences: (1) Telemetry data also consider rare long-distance excursions, while (2) observers of spot-mapping might fail to observe long-distance movements and thus underestimate home-range sizes as well as displacement distances; (3) results from telemetry might become blurred from measurement error during the triangulation of fixes. Our study confirms that both methods provide advantages, but also shortcomings, which need to be considered when selecting a method to elaborate a research question.

Biodiversity is declining, with major causes identified as habitat loss and a reduction of habitat quality. Recent studies have shown that particularly species with specific habitat demands are suffering in this way. Accordingly, habitat specialists have been nominated as umbrella species, which because they represent a much larger number of species, are thought best to fulfil the requirements of nature conservation. However, species which are ecologically intermediate between habitat specialists and generalists, and typically form networks of populations on adjoining habitats, might suffer even more severely under rapid habitat fragmentation than those specialists which had for a long time already occurred as discrete populations. Today, most of these formerly more widely distributed intermediate species also exist only as small and isolated populations which, because of their increasing geographic isolation, cannot counterbalance local extinctions by recolonisation. Furthermore, these species are mostly equipped with relatively high genetic diversity that is maintained by continual exchange of individuals between local populations. However, this high level of genetic variability frequently decreases after the collapse of population networks – with negative effects on the viability of these species. Thus, factors at the population and molecular levels may lead that formerly common species vanish in the near future.

Two major theories of community assembly - based on the assumption of 'limiting similarity' or 'habitat filtering', respectively - predict contrasting patterns in the spatial arrangement of functional traits. Previous analyses have made progress in testing these predictions and identifying underlying processes, but have also pointed to theoretical as well as methodological shortcomings. Here we applied a recently developed methodology for spatially explicit analysis of phylogenetic meta-community structure to study the pattern of co-occurrence of functional traits in Afrotropical and Neotropical bird species inhabiting forest fragments. Focusing separately on locomotory, dietary, and dispersal traits, we tested whether environmental filtering causes spatial clustering, or competition leads to spatial segregation as predicted by limiting similarity theory. We detected significant segregation of species co-occurrences in African fragments, but not in the Neotropical ones. Interspecific competition had a higher impact on trait co-occurrence than filter effects, yet no single functional trait was able to explain the observed degree of spatial segregation among species. Despite high regional variability spanning from spatial segregation to aggregation, we found a consistent tendency for a clustered spatial patterning of functional traits among communities in fragmented landscapes, particularly in non-territorial species. Overall, we show that behavioural effects, such as territoriality, and environmental effects, such as the area of forest remnants or properties of the landscape matrix in which they are embedded, can strongly affect the pattern of trait co-occurrence. Our findings suggest that trait-based analyses of community structure should include behavioural and environmental covariates, and we here provide an appropriate method for linking functional traits, species ecology and environmental conditions to clarify the drivers underlying spatial patterns of species co-occurrence.

Here we build on the manifesto ‘World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity, issued by the Alliance of World Scientists. As a group of conservation biologists deeply concerned about the decline of insect populations, we here review what we know about the drivers of insect extinctions, their consequences, and how extinctions can negatively impact humanity. We are causing insect extinctions by driving habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, use of polluting and harmful substances, the spread of invasive species, global climate change, direct overexploitation, and co-extinction of species dependent on other species. With insect extinctions, we lose much more than species. We lose abundance and biomass of insects, diversity across space and time with consequent homogenization, large parts of the tree of life, unique ecological functions and traits, and fundamental parts of extensive networks of biotic interactions. Such losses lead to the decline of key ecosystem services on which humanity depends. From pollination and decomposition, to being resources for new medicines, habitat quality indication and many others, insects provide essential and irreplaceable services. We appeal for urgent action to close key knowledge gaps and curb insect extinctions. An investment in research programs that generate local, regional and global strategies that counter this trend is essential. Solutions are available and implementable, but urgent action is needed now to match our intentions.

The fate of humans and insects intertwine, especially through the medium of plants. Global environmental change, including land transformation and contamination, is causing concerning insect diversity loss, articulated in the companion review Scientists' warning to humanity on insect extinctions. Yet, despite a sound philosophical foundation, recognized ethical values, and scientific evidence, globally we are performing poorly at instigating effective insect conservation. As insects are a major component of the tapestry of life, insect conservation would do well to integrate better with overall biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. This also involves popularizing insects, especially through use of iconic species, through more media coverage, and more inclusive education. Insect conservationists need to liaise better with decision makers, stakeholders, and land managers, especially at the conceptually familiar scale of the landscape. Enough evidence is now available, and synthesized here, which illustrates that multiple strategies work at local levels towards saving insects. We now need to expand these locally-crafted strategies globally. Tangible actions include ensuring maintenance of biotic complexity, especially through improving temporal and spatial heterogeneity, functional connectivity, and metapopulation dynamics, while maintaining unique habitats, across landscape mosaics, as well as instigating better communication. Key is to have more expansive sustainable agriculture and forestry, improved regulation and prevention of environmental risks, and greater recognition of protected areas alongside agro-ecology in novel landscapes. Future-proofing insect diversity is now critical, with the benefits far reaching, including continued provision of valuable ecosystem services and the conservation of a rich and impressive component of Earth's biodiversity.

International audience; Pleistocene glaciations had significant effects on the distribution and evolution of species inhabiting the Holarctic region. Phylogeographic studies concerning the entire region are still rare. Here, we compared global phylogeographic patterns of one boreo-montane and one boreo-temperate butterflies with largely overlapping distribution ranges across the Northern Hemisphere, but with different levels of range fragmentation and food specialization. We reconstructed the global phylogeographic history of the boreo-montane specialist Boloria eunomia (n = 223) and of the boreo-temperate generalist Boloria selene (n = 106) based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers, and with species distribution modelling (SDM). According to the genetic structures obtained, both species show a Siberian origin and considerable split among populations from Nearctic and Palaearctic regions. According to SDMs and molecular data, both butterflies could inhabit vast areas during the moderate glacials. In the case of B. selene, high haplotype diversity and low geographic structure suggest long-lasting interconnected gene flow among populations. A stronger geographic struc-turing between populations was identified in the specialist B. eunomia, presumably due to the less widespread, heterogeneously distributed food resources, associated with cooler and more humid climatic conditions. Populations of both species show opposite patterns across major parts of North America and in the case of B. eunomia also across Asia. Our data underline the relevance to cover entire distribution ranges to reconstruct the correct phylogeographic history of species.

Central European calcareous grasslands are particularly rich in species, harbouring an endangered flora and fauna. In this study, we analyse how invertebrates, like ground beetles, react on vegetation changes in these habitats. We ask if and how species of both groups may react on local environmental changes associated with conservation management regimes. For this reason, vascular plant and ground beetle communities were assessed at six semi-natural calcareous grasslands in Luxembourg before (1988–1992) and after (2008–2010) restoration had started. All studied grassland sites are protected as nature reserves and managed to preserve an open and diverse plant species composition. Our data indicate diverging trends for plant and ground beetle composition: Richness and abundance of species increased for plants and decreased for ground beetles, particularly for forest and Red List species. Functional diversity of plants and ground beetles remained stable, although the abundance of nitrogen-loving plant species increased. In ground beetles, we identified increased proportions of species with strong habitat associations. These findings underline that plant species, in particular typical calcareous grassland species, benefited from ongoing conservation management, while many ground beetle species, mostly the non-grassland specialists, suffered under the applied management regimes. These results highlight the general dilemma in nature conservation of how to prioritise management regimes in situ.

Most studies on tropical conservation questions are conducted by researchers of developed countries from the north. This geographic disconnection was recently criticised by Mammides et al. Here, we reflect on their findings and add further views from scientist’s and journal editor’s perspectives. We argue that journals are, a priori, most strongly interested in research questions and approaches that will likely increase their scientific impact and prestige. This is rarely compatible with publishing articles on questions with restricted global impact or based on single taxa. We question whether small changes in the editorial policy of international conservation journals will considerably improve the geographic diversity in key conservation publications. Rather, thematic scopes of the leading conservation journals should be modified, preferably in close collaboration with leading conservationists from the south. We are convinced that long-term investments in the tropics will create a stronger local scientific community, thus bolstering academic morale, and finally may lead to an increase in the submission and acceptance rate of articles written from scientists from these regions.

Tinamous (Tinamidae) represent one of the most ancient living avian lineages but their life history traits are relatively unstudied. Here we identified microsatellite loci for two sympatric tinamou species, the Ornate Tinamou ( Nothoprocta ornata) and the Darwin's Nothura ( Nothura darwinii) from low coverage Illumina sequencing of genomic DNA. The experiment yielded a large number of candidate loci. We designed primers and tested them for successful amplification in 1 to 2 populations of the target species, tested for deviation from the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and the presence of null alleles, the levels of polymorphism and potential cross-amplification. All 30 and 24 loci amplified consistently, in the Ornate Tinamou and in Darwin's Nothura, respectively. In the Ornate Tinamou, 25 loci were polymorphic and in the Darwin's Nothura 12, with 2 to 14 alleles per locus in both species. The expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.054 to 0.917 in the Ornate Tinamou and from 0.044 to 0.908 in the Darwin's Nothura. 23 (40%) of 54 loci were successfully cross-amplified. These newly discovered, polymorphic microsatellite loci represent a valuable tool for future studies on social behaviour, parentage and genetic population structure in tinamous.

AimIdentification of potential glacial refugia and post-glacial colonization processes of a flightless, cold-adapted ground beetleLocationCentral and eastern Europe.MethodsWe analysed the genetic structure of 33 Carabus sylvestris populations sampled across its entire distribution range using nuclear and mitochondrial markers. We further compiled occurrence records to develop species distribution models to predict distribution ranges for the last glacial period and the present based on the species’ current climatic niche.ResultsDistinct genetic lineages were detected for a number of mountain ranges and were congruent for both molecular marker systems. Most genetic splits were the results of vicariance, whereas dispersal was rare. Our models suggest that the species’ distribution range was larger and more interconnected in the past.Main conclusionsOur data support multiple glacial refugia for C. sylvestris, some of which were located north of the Alps. Some lower mountain ranges were likely recolonized post-glacially.

The distributions of European high mountain species are often characterised by small and geographically isolated populations and, in many cases, have highly complex biogeographic histories. The butterfly genus Erebia represents one of the best examples for small-scale diversification in the European high mountain systems and therefore to understand speciation processes and associated range dynamics of high mountain species. In this study, we analysed 17 polymorphic allozyme loci of 1731 individuals from 49 populations representing four species, one of which has three subspecies: Erebia nivalis; Erebia tyndarus; Erebia ottomana; and Erebia cassioides cassioides, Erebia cassioides arvernensis, and Erebia cassioides neleus. Samples were collected in the high mountain systems of Europe (i.e. Pyrenees, Massif Central, Alps, Apennines, Carpathians, Balkan high mountains). Genetic analyses supported all previously accepted species. However, the genetic differentiation within E. cassioides sensu lato into three geographically delimited groups is justifying species rank: E. arvernensis distributed in the Pyrenees, Massif Central and western Alps; E. cassioides sensu stricto in the eastern Alps and Apennines; and E. neleus in the Balkan mountains and the south-western Carpathians. While the differentiation between western Alps and Massif Central as well as eastern Alps and Apennines was low, the Pyrenees as well as the south-western Carpathians were significantly differentiated from the other regions within the respective taxon. In general, the differentiation among the populations of E. neleus was stronger than between populations of the other taxa. Within E. cassioides, we found a west-east gradient of genetic similarity over the eastern Alps. Based on the obtained genetic structures, we are able to delineate glacial refugia and interglacial range modifications. Based on the genetic structures and genetic diversity patterns, we conclude that, triggered by the glacial-interglacial cycles, repeated range modifications have taken place with subsequent differentiation and speciation in the region of the Alps and Balkans. Colonisations to Pyrenees (E. arvernensis pseudomurina, E. arvernensis pseudocarmenta), Massif Central (E. ottomana tardenota, E. a. arvernensis) and Apennines (E. cassioides majellana) appear to be recent and most probably not older than the last interglacial period.

Environmental changes strongly impact the distribution of species and subsequently the composition of species assemblages. Although most community ecology studies represent temporal snap shots, long-term observations are rather rare. However, only such time series allow the identification of species composition shifts over several decades or even centuries. We analyzed changes in the species composition of a southeastern German butterfly and burnet moth community over nearly 2 centuries (1840-2013). We classified all species observed over this period according to their ecological tolerance, thereby assessing their degree of habitat specialisation. This classification was based on traits of the butterfly and burnet moth species and on their larval host plants. We collected data on temperature and precipitation for our study area over the same period. The number of species declined substantially from 1840 (117 species) to 2013 (71 species). The proportion of habitat specialists decreased, and most of these are currently endangered. In contrast, the proportion of habitat generalists increased. Species with restricted dispersal behavior and species in need of areas poor in soil nutrients had severe losses. Furthermore, our data indicated a decrease in species composition similarity between different decades over time. These data on species composition changes and the general trends of modifications may reflect effects from climate change and atmospheric nitrogen loads, as indicated by the ecological characteristics of host plant species and local changes in habitat configuration with increasing fragmentation. Our observation of major declines over time of currently threatened and protected species shows the importance of efficient conservation strategies.

Conflicts between human needs and nature conservation are exceptionally pronounced along rivers in tropical Kenya, where riparian ecosystems create important retreats for many endangered species, but also provide important ecosystem services for the local human population. This situation has led to a landscape mosaic consisting of dense thickets and agricultural plots. We assessed the occurrence of the Kenyan endemic riparian bird species HindesBabbler Turdoides hindei along three rivers in south-east Kenya. We analysed the landscape coverage within habitat circles of 220 m radius, which are occupied and unoccupied (the latter randomly selected along the rivers) by our targeted bird species. Based on these data we calculated habitat preferences and population structure of T. hindei. Our data reveal that its occurrence probability increased with cov- erage of thickets. Furthermore, geographic distances among local populations of T. hindei decreased with thicket coverage and vice versa. These data reveal the relevance of thicket coverage as a key factor for the occurrence of T. hindei, influencing its population structure. However, most of the thicket patches mapped along the three rivers are small and geographically isolated from each other. Further deforestation might lead to additional reduction of the population size and abundance of T. hindei, and may ultimately lead to local extinction of this, and other endangered species adapted on riparian thickets. This

Many sedentary species with specific habitat demands occur in isolated populations and thus show strong intraspecific genetic differentiation, shaped either by geographical isolation or by local ecological adaptation to specific environmental conditions. The water-lily leaf beetle Galerucella nymphaeae has two ecotypes: one only found feeding as a specialist on just a few host plant species of the family Polygonaceae, and the other on various representatives of the family Nymphaeaceae as a generalist. To test whether the differentiation in ecotypes is also reflected in the population genetic structure, we combined amplified fragment length polymorhism data (> 500 polymorphic fragments; four sampling sites, 27–31 individuals each) with ex-situ feeding experiments (ten individuals from each site). We found that both ecotypes are genetically well differentiated. Furthermore, the genetic divergence between the two studied generalist Nymphaeaceae ecotype populations was also high. In contrast, the two specialist Polygonaceae ecotype populations clustered closely together (thus not depending on geographical isolation), indicating an ecology-driven genetic structuring. Our ex-situ reciprocal feeding experiment revealed that only individuals of the Polygonaceae ecotype are strictly dependent on their host plant family: individuals from populations feeding Polygonaceae are less likely to feed on species from the family Nymphaeaceae than the reverse. Our data show that host preference may drive genetic differentiation even more strongly than simple geographical distance.

Thickets along rivers in Eastern Kenya are important habitats for many endangered species. These habitats also provide fundamental ecosystem services for humans. Intense anthropogenic activities during the past decades have caused a severe reduction of this vegetation and resulted in fragmentation of the remaining thicket patches. We assessed the occurrence of the Kenyan endemic bird species Hinde's Babbler (Turdoides hindei) in a highly fragmented environment and performed detailed land use mapping along the Nzeeu River in East Kenya. We measured the time the birds spent in thicket patches, which differed in their habitat setting: pristine versus surrogate vegetation, different habitat size and different edge-size-ratio. Further, we identified areas of potential conflicts between human activities and our target species. Four T. hindei family groups were observed, mostly in invasive Lantana camara patches. Habitat size and edge-size-ratio of the respective thicket patches revealed a significant impact on the duration of stay of T. hindei with disproportional longer stays in small habitat patches and in patches with larger edge-size-ratio than in rather large patches or thickets with small edge-size-ratio. The 75%- and 95%-kernels showed no overlap between family groups and only marginal overlap with the 75%-kernels of human disturbances. Our data show that the invasive L. camara thickets (even small patches with high edge-size ratio) are a suitable surrogate habitat for the Kenyan endemic for T. hindei. The birds avoid open land likely because of higher predation pressure outside of thickets. Limited overlap between zones of human activity and the occurrence of T. hindei may be a response either to lacking thickets in these areas, and/or an adaptation to elevated hunting pressure in these zones. Therefore, the transformation of thickets into open agricultural land has a negative impact on the persistence of T. hindei. For the preservation of the remaining T. hindei family groups in our study area we suggest to establish an interconnected network of thicket patches, as the high mobility of the species allows persistence in such patchy environments.

Population genetic research has transformed from the study of genetic structures into a much wider and highly multidisciplinary research field. In this contribution, we outline the limitations of classic population genetic data and highlight the potential of combining molecular data with additional environmental, ecological and biological data sets in multidisciplinary approaches. The combination of data sets from various fields allows a more comprehensive understanding of extrinsic and intrinsic evolutionary processes affecting populations such as the distinction between genetic drift and natural selection. The integration of population size estimates and demographic dynamics as well as individual behaviour (embracing aspects like dispersal behaviour) allows for testing of adaptations to local environments and understanding time-lags frequently observed in molecular data. Modelling approaches are integrated at increasing rates into population genetic research to identify potential barriers and corridors. In our review, we therefore highlight multiple synergistic effects when combining population genetic data with morphological, ecological, behavioural data and modelling. We outline strengths and limitations and indicate future possibilities and challenges. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 115, 1–12.

Anthropogenic activities caused a severe loss of pristine habitats alongside with fragmentation of remaining habitats and the deterioration of habitat quality. The Arabuko Sokoke forest represents the largest remnant of East African coastal forest. Despite conservation efforts to maintain biodiversity in this forest, populations of several species are declining, including flagship species like the endemic Sokoke Scops Owl Otus ireneae. In this study, we assessed the presence of O. ireneae based on playback technique to identify the occurrence of this species across the forest. We then analysed habitat parameters at sites occupied and non-occupied by the owl species. Our data show that O. ireneae occurs restricted to one single forest type, the Cynometra woodland. Results obtained from parametric one-way ANOVA and structural equation modelling reveal that large old Cynometra webberi trees and dead wood are key requirements for the occurrence of this owl species. However, large C. webberi trees are currently illegally logged by the forest adjacent human population to produce timber, carvings, poles. Charcoal and dead wood represents a major energy source for households. Otus ireneae, being the smallest owl of East Africa may serve as a charismatic flag ship species to promote conservation of this endangered coastal forest, and furthermore as umbrella to conserve other forest species with similar habitat requirements.

Habitat size, quality and isolation determine the genetic structure and diversity of populations and may influence their evolutionary potential and vulnerability to stochastic events. Small and isolated populations are subject to strong genetic drift and can lose much of their genetic diversity due to stochastic fixation and loss of alleles. The mountain white-eye Zosterops poliogaster, a cloud forest bird species, is exclusively found in the high mountains of East Africa. We analysed 13 polymorphic microsatellites for 213 individuals of this species that were sampled at different points in time in three mountain massifs differing in habitat size, isolation and habitat degradation. We analysed the genetic differentiation among mountain populations and estimated the effective population sizes. Our results indicate three mountain-specific genetic clusters. Time cohorts did not show genetic divergences, suggesting that populations are large enough to prevent strong drift effects. Effective population sizes were higher in larger and geographically interconnected habitat patches. Our findings underline the relevance of ecological barriers even for mobile species and show the importance of investigating different estimators of population size, including both approaches based on single and multiple time-points of sampling, for the inference of the demographic status of a population. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 114, 828–836.

Research collaboration between developed countries from the northern hemisphere and developing countries in the southern hemisphere is essential for the understanding and protection of the major proportion of biodiversity located in the tropics. Focusing on the case of sub-Saharan Africa, we here assess the real involvement of northern versus southern contributors, and caution against unequal academic benefit sharing arising from non-commercial biodiversity research that may ultimately hamper sustainable knowledge transfer and long-term biodiversity conservation. We discuss possible drivers that may have led to a business of raw biodiversity data. While we fully support the current efforts to stamp out biopiracy through international biodiversity policies and agreements, we illustrate that such legislative frameworks may further constrain biodiversity research, especially in countries where regulations are poorly streamlined and bureaucracy remains rather inert. We therefore ask for workable solutions towards more equal footing in north-south biodiversity research, and propose a number of steps to transgress the current barriers towards a more fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from biodiversity research.

Quaternary climatic oscillations caused severe range expansions and retractions of European biota. During the cold phases, most species shifted to lower latitudes and altitudes, and expanded their distribution range northwards and to higher elevations during the warmer interglacial phases. These range shifts produced contrasting distribution dynamics, forming geographically restricted distribution patterns but also panmictic distributions, strongly dependent on the ecologic demands of the species. The two closely related butterfly species Erebia ottomana Herrich-Schaffer, 1847 and Erebia cassioides (Reiner & Hohenwarth, 1792) show subalpine and alpine distribution settings, respectively. Erebia ottomana is found up to the treeline (1400–2400 m a.s.l.), whereas E. cassioides reaches much higher elevations (from about 1800 m a.s.l. in the Retezat Mountains, in Romania, to 2800 m a.s.l.). Thus, both species cover diverging climatic niches, and thus might also have been distributed differently during the cold glacial stages. Individuals of these two species were sampled over the mountain areas of the Balkan Peninsula and genetically analysed using allozyme electrophoresis. Additionally, we performed species distribution models (SDMs) to simulate the distribution patterns of both species in the past (i.e. during the Last Glacial Maximum and the Atlanticum). Our genetic data show contrasting structures, with comparatively low genetic differentiation but high genetic diversity found in E. ottomana, and with stronger genetic differentiation and a lower level of genetic diversity, including many endemic alleles, occurring restricted to single mountain massifs in E. cassioides. The SDMs support a downhill shift during glacial periods, especially for E. ottomana, with possible interconnection among mountain regions. We conclude that during the cold glacial phases, both species are assumed to shift downhill, but persisted at different elevations, with E. ottomana reaching the foothills and spreading over major parts of the Balkan Peninsula. In contrast, E. cassioides (the truly alpine species) survived in the foothills, but did not reach and spread over lowland areas. This more widespread distribution at the Balkan Peninsula of E. ottomana compared with E. cassioides is strongly supported by our distribution models. As a consequence, long-term geographic restriction to distinct mountain massifs in E. cassioides versus panmixia in E. ottomana produced two contrasting evolutionary scenarios. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 112, 569–583.

The Eastern Afromontane cloud forests occur as geographically distinct mountain exclaves. The conditions of these forests range from large to small and from fairly intact to strongly degraded. For this study, we sampled individuals of the forest bird species, the Montane White-eye Zosterops poliogaster from 16 sites and four mountain archipelagos. We analysed 12 polymorphic microsatellites and three phenotypic traits, and calculated Species Distribution Models (SDMs) to project past distributions and predict potential future range shifts under a scenario of climate warming. We found well-supported genetic and morphologic clusters corresponding to the mountain ranges where populations were sampled, with 43% of all alleles being restricted to single mountains. Our data suggest that large-scale and long-term geographic isolation on mountain islands caused genetically and morphologically distinct population clusters in Z. poliogaster. However, major genetic and biometric splits were not correlated to the geographic distances among populations. This heterogeneous pattern can be explained by past climatic shifts, as highlighted by our SDM projections. Anthropogenically fragmented populations showed lower genetic diversity and a lower mean body mass, possibly in response to suboptimal habitat conditions. On the basis of these findings and the results from our SDM analysis we predict further loss of genotypic and phenotypic uniqueness in the wake of climate change, due to the contraction of the species’ climatic niche and subsequent decline in population size. Heredity advance online publication, 9 April 2014; doi:10.1038/hdy.2014.15

East-African mountain forest species often occur in small and isolated populations, whereas species inhabiting the dry lowland savannahs exist in large and interconnected population networks. Taxa with closely related highland and lowland species, such as the East- African White-eye birds, allow testing for the potential effects of the two contrasting distribution patterns, moun- tain disjunction versus lowland panmixia. In this study, we compare the population genetic and bioacoustic differen- tiation of two representatives of the genus Zosterops: Zo- sterops poliogaster is exclusively found in forests at higher elevations; in comparison, Zosterops abyssinicus, only occurs in the dry and warm lowland savannahs. Both species were analysed across a similar geographical scale. Population genetic differentiation was inferred using the same set of 15 polymorphic microsatellite loci for both species. In addition, we quantitatively analyzed bioacoustic traits. Both data sets indicate a strong population differ- entiation among populations of the highland species, but an absence of differentiation in the lowland species. In addi- tion, the lowland Z. abyssinicus was characterised by a twofold higher genetic diversity than detected for the highland Z. poliogaster. These two contrasting intraspecific population structures may reflect the opposite ecology and distribution of these species: the strong population isolation of Z. poliogaster resulting from long-term restriction to the cool and moist mountain forests at higher elevations has led to strong differentiation among local populations and resulted in a comparatively low level of intraspecific var- iability. In contrast, population panmixia in the lowland Z. abyssinicus provides a high level of gene flow allowing the maintenance of high genetic diversity and avoiding strong population structuring. These findings need to be consid- ered when planning conservation actions.

The genetic structure of a species is shaped by the interaction of contemporary and historical factors. Analyses of individuals from the same population sampled at different points in time can help to disentangle the effects of current and historical forces and facilitate the understanding of the forces driving the differentiation of populations. The use of such time series allows for the exploration of changes at the population and intraspecific levels over time. Material from museum collections plays a key role in understanding and evaluating observed population structures, especially if large numbers of individuals have been sampled from the same locations at multiple time points. In these cases, changes in population structure can be assessed empirically. The development of new molecular markers relying on short DNA fragments (such as microsatellites or single nucleotide polymorphisms) allows for the analysis of long-preserved and partially degraded samples. Recently developed techniques to construct genome libraries with a reduced complexity and next generation sequencing and their associated analysis pipelines have the potential to facilitate marker development and genotyping in non-model species. In this review, we discuss the problems with sampling and available marker systems for historical specimens and demonstrate that temporal comparative studies are crucial for the estimation of important population genetic parameters and to measure empirically the effects of recent habitat alteration. While many of these analyses can be performed with samples taken at a single point in time, the measurements are more robust if multiple points in time are studied. Furthermore, examining the effects of habitat alteration, population declines, and population bottlenecks is only possible if samples before and after the respective events are included.

Conservation International's biodiversity hotspots are areas of high vascular plant endemism combined with high levels of habitat destruction and land use change. Although such hotspots have also been shown to be centres for terrestrial vertebrate endemism, much less is known about how well these areas function as hotspots for other less well-studied groups, including the hyperdiverse arthropods, other invertebrates and fungi. Because there is a close evolutionary and ecological relationship between insects and plants, we suggest that the potential role of plants as umbrella species for herbivorous insects, potentially herbivorous fungi and nematodes, and parasitic insects should be explored. Finally, we reflect on the increasing social, economic, human conflict and governance issues and the impacts of increasing land use change and global climate change that threaten the biodiversity hotspot system.

Glacial and interglacial cycles of the Pleistocene have led to severe range fluctuations of many species. These range shifts of the past often are reflected by extant genetic signatures. Retractions of distribution areas often have fostered splits into several small and isolated retreats as remnants of the formerly interconnected range. These processes often go in line with losses of intraspecific diversity. By contrast, large and interconnected distribution ranges mostly sustain high levels of genetic variability. The genetic impact of both scenarios strongly depends on the temporal scale. In the present study, we tested the genetic effects of an assumed long-lasting widespread distribution during glacial periods and more short-term population retractions to mountain archipelagos during warm stages. We analyzed polymorphic allozymes for individuals of the Eastern Large Heath butterfly, Coenonympha rhodopensis, including major parts of its distribution, such as central Italy and the Balkan Peninsula. Our data show extraordinarily high genetic diversity. The only remarkable genetic split is detectable between the central Apennines (Italy) and the Balkan mountain systems. The populations sampled over seven Balkan mountain systems (Jakupica, Shar Planina, Ossogovo, Pirin, Rila, Rhodopes, and Stara Planina) show low genetic differentiation. This low genetic differentiation and high genetic diversity diverges from the genetic structures frequently found in species with disjunct distributions. We therefore hypothesize that the obtained molecular structure is the product of down-slope shift during the last cold stage and subsequent expansion over the lowlands of the Balkan Peninsula. The current mountain restriction most probably occurred with the beginning of the postglacial warming, which is too short a time span to be of evolutionary relevance. Therefore, the recent high genetic diversities and low differentiation may still reflect long-lasting glacial panmixia but not (yet) the recent disjunction. The strong genetic differentiation between the Balkans and Italian Apennines must result from an earlier dispersal process, most probably from the Balkans to Italy. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, 110;, 281–290.

Biodiversity is not homogenously distributed over the globe, and ecosystems differ strongly in the number of species they provide. With this special issue we highlight the ecology and endangerment of one of the most diverse ecosystem of Europe: the European grassland ecosystems. The selected 16 contributions describe interactions from below-ground to the atmosphere and focus on (1) effects of abiotic and biotic on species diversity, (2) the impact of various factors along spatial and temporal gradients, (3) the relevance of falling abandoned and eutrophication—including countervailing management strategies like encroachment; and (4) intraspecific effects based on physiology, genetics and intraspecific plasticity. The contributions cover fungi, plants, and invertebrates and highlight effects taking place at the level of ecosystem, species community, species, populations, and also within individuals (physiology and genetics).

Aim: In contrast to the attention given to southern Europe both as a centre of speciation and differentiation and as a Pleistocene refugium of Western Palae- arctic taxa, North Africa has been relatively neglected. In this paper, we set out to address this shortfall. Location North-West Africa and the Mediterranean. Methods We reviewed the existing literature on the biogeography of North Africa, and carried out analyses of species distribution data using parsimony, nestedness and co-occurrence methods. Results In many cases, distribution patterns of non-flying mammals, bats, amphibians, reptiles, butterflies, zygaenid moths and odonates demonstrated important biogeographical affinities between Europe and North Africa at the species level. On the other hand, species co-occurrence, nestedness and parsi- mony analysis also revealed some deep splits between the Maghreb and Europe; yet even in these cases the closest affinities were found between the Iberian Peninsula and the Maghreb. Furthermore, North Africa harbours the highest proportion of endemic taxa (13.7%) across all groups analysed. Many molecu- lar studies demonstrated a strong genetic cohesiveness between North Africa and Europe despite the potential barrier effect of the Mediterranean Sea. In other taxa, however, remarkable splits were detected. In addition, southern European genetic lineages were often nested within North African clades, and many taxa showed exceptionally high genetic variability and differentiation in this region. Main conclusions The Maghreb was an important differentiation and specia- tion centre for thermophilic organisms during the Pliocene and Pleistocene with high relevance as a colonization source for Europe. The regions around the sea straits of Gibraltar and Sicily have acted as important biogeographical links between North Africa and Europe at different times.

The Eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot consists of isolated mountain massifs embedded within the dry lowland savannas of East Africa and of which the peaks and ridges are covered by cloud forest remnants. These cloud forests are home to the Mountain White-eye (Zosterops poliogaster), while three congeneric species (Abyssinian White-eye, Zosterops abyssinicus; Yellow White-eye, Zosterops senegalensis; Pemba White-eye, Zosterops vaughani) inhabit the adjacent lowland savannas. We sampled individuals of all four species across Kenya to analyse interspecific genetic relationships as well as intraspecific differentiation among mountain populations of Z. poliogaster. While the level of genetic differentiation among the four species was rather low, genetic differentiation within Z. poliogaster was very high, even between geographically neighbouring populations. Overall, levels of genetic variation varied strongly across all four species, with much higher diversity detected within the three lowland ones. The highland species was characterised by numerous private alleles that were geographically restricted at populations from single mountains, some of which showed evidence of recent population bottlenecks. We conclude that Z. poliogaster populations are both of high conservation value and conservation concern, given the high proportion of endemic alleles and the genetic signatures of high genetic drift and low gene flow that are typical for small and isolated populations.

Aim Thermophilic species persisted in southern refugia during the cold phases of the Pleistocene, and expanded northwards during warming. These processes caused genetic imprints, such as a differentiation of genetic lineages and a loss of genetic diversity in the wake of (re)colonization. We used molecular markers and species distribution models (SDMs) to study the impact of range dynamics on the common wall lizard, Podarcis muralis, from southern refugia to the northern range margin. Location Parts of the Western Palaearctic. Methods We genotyped 10 polymorphic microsatellites in 282 individuals of P. muralis and sequenced the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cytochrome b gene to study the genetic structure, divergence times and ancestral distributions. Furthermore, we generated SDMs for climate scenarios for 6 and 21 ka derived from two different global circulation models. Results We detected two major mtDNA lineages – a western France clade (Pyrenees to Brittany), and an eastern France clade (southern France to Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg). This split was dated to c. 1.23 Ma. The latter clade was divided into two subclades, which diverged c. 0.38 Ma. Genetic diversity of microsatellites within each clade was nested and showed a significant loss of genetic diversity from south to north, a strong pattern of allele surfing across nearly all loci, and an increase in genetic differentiation towards the northern range margin. Results from SDMs suggest that southward range retraction during the late glacial period split the distribution into geographically distinct refugia. Main conclusions The strong genetic differentiation mirrors the effects of long-term isolation of P. muralis in multiple refugia. Post-glacial recolonization of Northern Europe has taken place from two distinct refugia, most probably along river systems (Rh^ Rhine, Moselle) and along the Atlantic coastline, with subsequent nested elimination of genetic diversity and increasing genetic differentiation at the northern range margin.

[Aim] Genetic and phenotypic data may show convergent or contrasting spatial patterns. Discrepancies between markers may develop in response to different evolutionary forces. In this study we analyse inter- and intraspecific differentiation of closely related taxa in the marbled white butterfly species group. Based on genetic and phenotypic characters we test for potential evolutionary drivers and propose a taxonomic revision., [Location] Western Palaearctic (including north-western Africa)., [Methods] We compared distributions of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene (COI) sequences, of several allozyme loci, and of the shape of wings and genitalia obtained by applying landmark-based techniques for the three butterfly species Melanargia galathea (central and eastern Europe), M. lachesis (Iberia) and M. lucasi (North Africa)., [Results] All studied markers showed a strong spatial structure, although discordance among their patterns was detected. COI sequences, wing shape and genitalia indicated a main split between M. galathea and M. lucasi. A lower differentiation between M. galathea and M. lachesis was found in wing shape and reflected in two mutations of the COI gene, while allozymes indicated a strong divergence. Within M. galathea, allozyme data and COI, but not morphology, revealed the existence of a slightly differentiated lineage in the Italian Peninsula, France and Switzerland. Based on COI, Melanargia lucasi was split into two subgroups, a western and an eastern Maghreb lineage., [Main conclusions] Long-term isolation of Melanargia populations between North Africa and Europe led to divergence between M. galathea and M. lucasi. This was followed by a recent differentiation among populations isolated during the cold periods of the Pleistocene, such as M. lachesis in Iberia. These lineages are characterized by a tendency not to overlap in secondary sympatry. The different patterns of the four markers may arise from divergent evolutionary processes and pressures: wings may be mainly affected by natural selection, genital structures by sexual selection, whereas long-term isolation and drift may have driven divergence of mitochondrial DNA and allozymes., Funding for this research was provided by the project ‘Barcoding Italian Butterflies’, by the European Union's Seventh Framework programme for research and innovation under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 609402-2020 researchers: Train to Move (T2M) postdoctoral fellowship to R. Vodă, by European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant (project no. 658844 Eco-PhyloGeo) to L. Dapporto and by the Spanish Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad CGL2013-48277-P and PRX15/00305 to R. Vila.

Recently, many new (extant) mammal species have been named, mostly by raising subspecies to species rank. This is primarily a consequence of the phylogenetic species concept (PSC) that has become very popular over the last few decades. We highlight several cases of splitting and argue that much of this taxonomic inflation is artificial due to shortcomings of the PSC and unjustified reliance on insufficient morphological and/or genetic data. We particularly discourage species splitting based on gene trees inferred from mitochondrial DNA only and phenetic analyses aimed at diagnosability. Uncritical acceptance of new species creates an unnecessary burden on the conservation of biodiversity.

Tinamous have male-only parental care. For their mating system, simultaneous polygyny and sequential polyandry is proposed as an optimal model and is confirmed in all species according to the existing literature, except in the Ornate Tinamou. For the Ornate Tinamou a monogamous mating system is reported. However, this knowledge is based only on few direct observations in the field. Social monogamy in association with promiscuity would probably expose males to cuckoldry and, at the same time, constrain additional mating opportunities for them. To understand the evolutionary context for monogamy in the Ornate Tinamou, the present study aimed to determine whether this species is genetically monogamous or not and whether males are subjected to cuckoldry. We used polymorphic microsatellite markers to perform a sib-ship and paternity analysis based on samples from eggs and feathers of incubating males from four clutches. Promiscuity was found in all nests and the observed rate of cuckoldry ranged from 0% to 33.3%. These results rebut the consideration of monogamy for the Ornate Tinamou. Thus, the optimal model with polygynous males and polyandrous females prevails as an evolutionary stable strategy among tinamous, even in different social mating systems and despite high levels of cuckoldry.

Aim Post-glacial colonization of species from low-latitude refugia to high latitudes, or from lower to higher elevations, often involves repeated founder effects due to stepwise colonization. This may cause repeated population bottlenecks and the subsequent loss of alleles. Regression analyses have traditionally been used to analyse the correlation between the mean numbers of alleles and geographical distances from refugia. Here, we describe and evaluate the performance of nested subset analyses for detecting allele elimination. Methods Genetic data sets from five butterfly and one beetle species were reanalysed using regression and nested subset analyses. Results The data sets analysed here showed both congruent and divergent results under regression and nested subset analyses. Some data sets did not feature a significant correlation between the mean number of alleles and the colonization trajectory, but did show significant nested structure. Others showed the opposite effects. Using allele frequencies from the same data sets, we did not obtain significant patterns of nestedness. Main conclusions Our results indicate that classical regression analyses are not always a suitable tool for analysing allele elimination, and nestedness analyses are much more meaningful. Local natural selection can alter allele frequencies, thereby erasing biogeographical patterns that have evolved as a result of the stochastic processes involved in colonization. Thus, an appropriate means of documenting allele elimination sensu Reinig is the joint application of nested subset and regression analyses based on presence/absence and abundance data for genetic diversity.

The level of genetic diversity found for species is strongly influenced by properties of the species' ecology, abundance and behaviour (as dispersal). To address this coherence, we selected twenty-two grassland butterfly and burnet moth species, which were previously analysed by allozyme electrophoresis (using 15-25 loci per species) over a study area in western Germany with adjoining areas of Luxembourg and north-eastern France. For this study area, we calculated the species' specific climatic niche breadths and derived various ecological parameters from literature and own field observations. The obtained parameters of genetic diversity (heterozygosity, number of alleles and percentage of polymorphic loci), genetic differentiation (Dest as well as FST and FIS values as proxis for genetic differentiation among populations and inbreeding within populations), as well as ecological and climatic niche dimensions did not show significant differences among the different Lepidoptera families; therefore taxonomic assignment apparently has a negligible influence on the genetic structure of taxa. Genetic diversity and differentiation showed a significant correlation with the ecological and climatic niche-breadth of species in many cases: generalistic species with rather unspecific ecological characteristics and climatic niche had higher genetic diversities and tend to have lower differentiation and inbreeding, whereas specialist taxa (i.e. with narrow ecological and climatic niches) have lower genetic

Oligotrophic calcareous grasslands are among the most species-rich habitats in temperate Europe. Land use changes caused a severe decline of these species-rich grasslands over the last decades. Today, these ecosystems exist as highly isolated and small remnants being threatened by abandonment, afforestation and the transformation into agricultural land. Local conservation activities caused changes in habitat structures within such oligotrophic calcareous grasslands and their often isolated character may have led to stochastic species extinctions due to population fluctuations. In this study we focus on potential changes of grassland biota over the past decades. We analyse retrospective species inventories (14 for carabid beetles and 7 for butterflies) from calcareous grasslands located in western Germany with adjoining parts of Luxembourg over a period from 1972 to 2011. Our data indicate two distinct temporal cohorts (past versus present) that differ strongly in the composition and structure of carabid beetles and butterfly communities. Patterns of species co-occurrences tended to be segregated in the past communities while the co-occurrences in recent communities were either random or aggregated. β-Diversity increased with time. Our results indicate a temporal shift from past communities dominated by species interactions towards recent neutral assemblages. These changes might be caused by diverging conservation management being restricted to local sites. This resulted in a higher diversity of environmental structures combined with a loss of grassland habitats and declining matrix permeability. However, we detected no loss of rare carabid beetles, while butterflies showed severe extinctions of species with specific habitat demands, high endangerment and/or low dispersal behaviour. These trends let us argue that carabid communities mirror local changes in habitat structure (caused by conservation action), while butterflies show additional effects due to environmental stochasticity, local extinctions and a subsequent lack of re-colonization from adjoining populations.

Habitats often show similar present structuring, but contrasting histories: habitats occur naturally fragmented due to abiotic or biotic factors over long time periods, but may also have become fragmented only recently through transformation from interconnected to highly fragmented habitats within short time periods. Species and populations being faced with such contrasting habitat scenarios also show contrasting responses at species and intraspecific level. Organisms and populations from naturally fragmented habitats may show a reduction in their genetic load (purging) due to purifying selection in isolation. In contrast, sudden habitat transformations from interconnected to highly fragmented structures and the resulting transition from gene flow or panmixia to strong population differentiation often have negative effects on biota; while species occur in interconnected population networks (maintaining a high proportion of genetic diversity), a sudden breakdown of gene flow may lead to a severe loss of genetic diversity and the manifestation of weakly deleterious alleles. In consequence, fragmented habitats need not have a negative impact on species per se, but the history of habitat structures, particularly fast transformation processes, may severely affect the persistence and fitness of species.

Species often respond differently to identical environmental changes. Such different responses might be the consequence of varying ecological requirements and tolerances of specialists compared to generalists. We selected two closely related burnet moth species with contrasting ecological requirements: Zygaena carniolica is restricted to semi-natural calcareous grasslands and represents a stenotopic taxon, while Zygaena viciae occurs more widespread at extensively used meadows forming larger metapopulations. To examine different responses to recent habitat fragmentation, we analysed genetic and morphologic variation between populations of these two Zygaenid species in western Germany and adjoining areas in France and Luxembourg. Our data indicate contrasting genetic and morphologic patterns for both species: the genetic differentiation among populations is lower for Z. carniolica (FST: 0.049) compared to Z. viciae (FST: 0.058). The genetic diversity for Z. carniolica is rather low and homogeneously distributed over all populations, while Z. viciae has more alleles, which are unevenly distributed and often restricted to single populations, as shown by GENELAND models. The level of morphologic variance among and within (e.g. asymmetry) individuals is low for Z. carniolica, but much higher for Z. viciae. We conclude that these contrasting patterns mirror opposite responses on recent habitat degradation and associated loss of interconnectivity as a result of habitat destruction and land-use intensification. The data suggest that species like Z. viciae, with (historically) higher abundances suffer even stronger under the recent habitat loss. Morphologic asymmetry and genetic differentiation in the latter species rises, while diversity declines. More specialised taxa occurring in naturally isolated habitats (indicated by Species Distribution Models) feature an originally lower level of genetic diversity, and thus the impact of habitat decline on species’ persistence is less dramatic, as shown for Z. carniolica. Hence, we conclude that past and recent occurrence pattern has to be taken into account when interpreting data in the light of conservation measures.