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Significance Kyasanur forest disease (KFD), a re-emerging tick-borne viral disease causes severe hemorrhagic fever in humans and nonhuman primates. KFD virus (KFDV) is a member of genus Flavivirus. KFD is now increasingly reported outside its endemic zone in India. Rapid and specific detection of the KFDV plays a critical role in containment of the outbreak. The diagnosis of KFD currently relies on real-time RT-PCR, nested RT-PCR, end point RT-PCR, and serodiagnostic assay. These assays are tedious, time-consuming, and cannot be used as a routine screening platform. Objective The present study was aimed to develop a one-step reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay for molecular diagnosis of KFD. Design The gene amplification reaction was accomplished by incubation at a constant temperature of 63 °C for 60 min. Results The limit of detection of RT-LAMP assay was 10 copies. KFD RT-LAMP assay was successfully evaluated with diverse host samples including humans, monkeys, and tick. The assay correctly picked up different KFD isolates indicating its applicability for divergent strains. Comparative evaluation of RT-LAMP assay with quantitative TaqMan real-time RT-PCR revealed 100% concordance. No cross-reaction with related flavi and other hemorrhagic fever viruses was observed, indicating its high specificity. Conclusion and relevance : The RT-LAMP test developed in this study will serve as a rapid, sensitive alternate detection method for KFDV infection and would be useful for high throughput screening of clinical samples in resource limited areas during outbreaks.

Background & objectives: West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic flavivirus that has emerged globally as a significant cause of viral encephalitis. The early confirmatory diagnosis of WNV infections is important for timely clinical management and in areas where multiple flaviviruses are endemic. Diagnosis of WNV infection is primarily based on serodiagnosis, followed by virus isolation and identification. The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate a highly sensitive and specific immunoglobulin M (IgM) ELISA using the recombinant CprM protein (rWNV-CprM) for rapid, early and accurate diagnosis of WNV. Methods: The gene coding for the CprM protein of WNV was cloned and expressed in pET 28a vector followed by purification. An indirect IgM microplate ELISA using purified rWNV-CprM protein was optimized having no cross-reactivity with healthy human serum and serum samples obtained from patients with dengue and Japanese encephalitis viruses infection. Results: The comparative evaluation of this rWNV-CprM protein-specific IgM ELISA with plaque reduction neutralization test using 105 blood samples collected from patients suspected to have acute WNV infection revealed 98 per cent concordance with sensitivity and specificity of 100 and 97 per cent, respectively. Interpretation & conclusions: The recombinant CprM protein-based WNV-specific ELISA reported in this study may be useful for rapid screening of large numbers of blood samples in endemic areas during outbreaks.

West Nile virus (WNV) causes West Nile fever and encephalitis worldwide. Currently, there are no effective drugs or vaccines available in the market to treat WNV infection in humans. Hence, it is of paramount importance to detect WNV early for the success of the disease control programs and timely clinical management in endemic areas. In the present paper, we report the development of real-time reverse transcription recombinase polymerase amplification (RT-RPA) assay for rapid and real-time detection of WNV targeting the envelope (env) gene of the virus. The RPA reaction was performed successfully at 39°C for 15 min in a real-time thermal cycler. The sensitivity of this assay was found similar to that of the quantitative real-time RT PCR (RT-qPCR) assay, which could detect 10 copies of the gene. The efficacy of the assay was evaluated with a panel of 110 WN suspected human samples showing the signs of retinitis, febrile illness and acute posterior uveitis. In comparison with RT-qPCR, RT-RPA showed a specificity of 100% (CI, 95.07–100%) and sensitivity of 96.15% (CI, 80.36–99.90%) with a negative (NPV) and positive predictive value (PPV) of 98.65 and 100%, respectively. The level of agreement between RT-RPA and reference RT-qPCR assay was shown to be very high. The turnaround time of real-time RPA assay is about 10-20 times faster than the RT-qPCR, which confirms its utility in the rapid and sensitive diagnosis of WNV infection. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report which deals with the development of real-time RT-RPA assay for simple, rapid, sensitive, and specific detection of WNV in human clinical samples. The present RT-RPA assay proves to be a powerful tool that can be used for the rapid diagnosis of a large number of patient samples in endemic settings.

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) virus, a highly pathogenic viral agent is responsible for severe fatal hemorrhagic infections in many parts of the world. The early diagnosis of CCHF infection is important for successful clinical management and epidemiological control. The nucleoprotein (NP) of CCHFV being highly conserved and immunogenic is used as early diagnostic marker. In this study, we report a rapid and sensitive double antibody based antigen capture ELISA to detect Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV). Highly specific polyclonal and monoclonal antibody against NP has been generated and used as capture and detector antibody respectively. The assay was able to detect viral nucleoprotein in different matrices including human serum, ticks and culture supernatant. The detection limit of the developed sandwich ELISA assay was 25 ng of purified antigen. Comparison with a real time RT-PCR revealed its detection limit to be 1000 genome equivalents of CCHFV. Further the assay was comparatively evaluated with a commercial kit employing gamma irradiated CCHFV, revealing a sensitivity and specificity of 100%. This newly developed sandwich ELISA (sELISA) with high sensitivity and specificity could be used as an efficient method for the detection of CCHF virus in humans, ticks and culture supernatant. The assay will be useful as alternate tool for diagnosis of acute infection and is amenable for screening of large scale samples in resource limited settings.

COVID-19 has emerged as global pandemic with largest damage to the public health, economy and human psyche.The genome sequence data obtained during the ongoing pandemic are valuable to understand the virus evolutionary patterns and spread across the globe. Increased availability of genome information of circulating SARS-CoV-2 strains in India will enable the scientific community to understand the emergence of new variants and their impact on human health. The first case of COVID-19 was detected in Chambal region of Madhya Pradesh state in mid of March 2020 followed by multiple introduction events and expansion of cases within next three months. More than 5000 COVID-19 suspected samples referred to Defence Research and Development Establishment, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh were analyzed during the nation -wide lockdown and unlock period. A total of 136 cases were found positive over a span of three months that included virus introduction to the region and its further spread. Whole genome sequences employing Oxford nanopore technology were generated for 26 SARS-CoV-2 circulating in 10 different districts in Madhya Pradesh state of India. This period witnessed index cases with multiple travel histories responsible for introduction of COVID-19 followed by remarkable expansion of virus. The genome wide substitutions including in important viral proteins were identified. The detailed phylogenetic analysis revealed the circulating SARS-CoV-2 clustered in multiple clades including A2a, A4 and B. The cluster-wise segregation was observed, suggesting multiple introduction links and subsequent evolution of virus in the region. This is the first comprehensive whole genome sequence analysis from central India, which revealed the emergence and evolution of SARS-CoV-2 during thenation-wide lockdown and unlock.

COVID 19 has emerged as global pandemic with largest damage to the economy and human psyche. The genomic signature deciphered during the ongoing pandemic period is valuable to understand the virus evolutionary patterns and spread across the globe. Increased availability of genome information of circulating strain in our country will enable to generate selective details in virulent and non virulent markers to prophylaxis and therapeutic interventions. The first case of SARS CoV-2 was detected in Chambal region of Madhya Pradesh state in mid of March 2020 followed by multiple introduction events and expansion of COVID-19 cases within 3 months in this region. We analyzed around 5000 COVID -19 suspected samples referred to Defence Research and Development Establishment, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. A total of 136 cases were found positive over a span of three months period this includes virus introduction to region and further spread. Whole genome sequences employing Oxford nanopore technology were deciphered for 26 SARS-CoV-2 circulating in 10 different districts in Madhya Pradesh State of India. The region witnessed index cases with multiple travel history responsible for introduction of COVID-19 followed by remarkable expansion of virus. The genome wide substitutions including in important viral proteins were observed. The detailed phylogenetic analysis revealed the circulating SARS-CoV-2 clustered in multiple clades A2a, A4 and B. The cluster wise segregation was observed suggesting multiple introduction links and evolution of virus in the region. This is the first comprehensive details of whole genome sequence analysis from central India region, which will add genome wide knowledge towards diagnostic and therapeutic interventions.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne virus of public health importance. Currently, there is no FDA approved vaccine available against WNV infection in humans. Therefore, the early diagnosis of the WNV infection is important for epidemiologic control and timely clinical management in areas where multiple Flaviviruses are endemic. The present study aimed to develop reverse transcription polymerase spiral reaction (RT-PSR) assay that rapidly and accurately detects the envelope (env) gene of WNV. RT-PSR assay was optimized at 63°C for 60 min using real-time turbidimeter or visual detection by the addition of SYBR Green I dye. The standard curve for RT-PSR assay was generated using the 10-fold serial dilutions of in vitro transcribed WNV RNA. To determine the detection limit of RT-PSR assay, an amplified product of conventional RT-PCR was in vitro transcribed as per standard protocol. The detection limit of the newly developed RT-PSR assay was compared with that of conventional RT-PCR and CDC reported TaqMan real-time RT-PCR using a serial 10-fold dilution of IVT WNV RNA. The detection limit of RT-PSR was found to be 1 RNA copy, which is 100-fold higher than that of conventional RT-PCR (100 copies). This suggests that RT-PSR assay is a valuable diagnostic tool for rapid and real-time detection of WNV in acute-phase serum samples. The assay was validated with a panel of 107 WNV suspected human clinical samples with signs of acute posterior uveitis and onset of febrile illness. Out of 107 samples, 30 were found positive by RT-PSR assay. The specificities of the selected primer sets were established by the absence of cross-reactivity with other closely related members viruses of the Flaviviruses, Alphaviruses, and Morbilliviruses groups. No cross-reactivity was observed with other viruses. To best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing the RT-PSR assay for the detection of RNA virus (WNV) in clinical samples. RT-PSR is a high throughput method and more than 30 reactions can be run at once in real-time turbidimeter. PSR assay has potential to be used for a rapid screening of large number of clinical samples in endemic areas during an outbreak.

BACKGROUND The West Nile Virus (WNV) has emerged as one of the most significant arboviral infection in many parts of the world and is associated with the encephalitis affecting mainly human and horses. In spite of the fact that the WNV is threat for the public health, there is no vaccine or therapeutic available for the treatment of WNV. METHODS In this study, we tested a novel RNA interference based technique to inhibit WNV replication in Vero cells. Two siRNAs were designed against the NS2A and NS5 regions of WNV which are highly conserved among Flaviviruses as it play important role in apoptosis and in viral replication respectively. In addition to this, dual functional siRNA is designed by joining an immunostimulatroy motif with the NS2A and NS5 specific siRNA. The antiviral activity was evaluated by detecting both the infectious virus and its genome. RESULTS The bifunctional siRNA resulted in significant reduction of virus titre in siRNA transfected cells as compared to controls. The antiviral efficacy was most effective at 48hr post infection. These results were in accordance with the quantitative RT-PCR assay revealing similar reduction in WNV genomic RNA. The expression of housekeeping gene was not affected by the siRNA indicating no off target effect and non-interference in cellular mechanism. CONCLUSION Thus, this bifunctional siRNA intervention paves the new way for therapeutic treatment of WNV disease.

Background & objectives: West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus. The disease can be diagnosed by isolation followed by fluorescent antibody tests, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. These diagnostic methods are laborious and time-consuming. The present study was aimed to evaluate the real-time reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) method for rapid, early and accurate diagnosis of WNV. Methods: A one-step single tube accelerated quantitative RT-LAMP assay was evaluated by targeting the Env gene of WNV. The gene amplification was accomplished by incubating the reaction mixture at 63°C for 60 min in both real time turbidimeter as well as routine laboratory water bath/dry heating bath. To rule out contamination issues, proper negative controls, including no template, no primer; and no enzyme, were always kept alongside each run. The RT-LAMP assay was evaluated on 105 clinical samples from individuals having ocular infection. Results: Of the 105 samples tested, 27 were positive for WNV by RT-LAMP assay. The comparative evaluation with conventional RT-PCR revealed 100 per cent accordance with sensitivity and specificity of 100 and 95 per cent, respectively. The specificity of this assay was confirmed with serum samples obtained from patients with dengue and chikungunya. Interpretation & conclusions: The RT-LAMP test seemed to be a sensitive and specific method for rapid detection of WNV infection and would be useful for rapid screening of a large number of clinical samples in endemic areas during outbreaks.

Burkholderia mallei is the aetiological agent of glanders, a highly contagious and re-emerging zoonotic disease. Early diagnosis of glanders is critically important to ensure timely treatment with appropriate antibiotics in humans, and to prevent spread of infection in animals. Molecular detection of B. mallei has always been troublesome because of its genetic similarity with Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis. In present investigation, a set of six B. mallei-specific primers were designed and a simple, rapid, specific and sensitive real-time loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay was developed for detection of B. mallei. The LAMP assay could detect as low as 1 pg of B. mallei genomic DNA and 5.5 × 103 CFU/ml of B. mallei in spiked human blood. The assay was highly specific for B. mallei as it did not cross-react with other bacterial strains used in the study. The established LAMP assay is field adaptable and can be a better and viable alternative to PCR-based techniques for detection of B. mallei in glanders endemic areas with resource-limited settings.

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a re-emerging zoonotic viral disease prevalent in many parts of Asia, Europe, and Africa. The causative agent, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus (CCHFV), is transmitted through hard ticks. Tick vectors especially belonging to the Hyalomma species serve as the reservoir and amplifying host. The vertebrate animals including sheep, goat, and bovine act as a short-lasting bridge linking the virus and ticks. CCHFV causes fatal hemorrhagic fever in humans. Humans are usually infected with CCHFV either through the bite of infected ticks or by close contact with infected animals. Immunological assays, primarily enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using whole viral antigen, are widely used for serosurveillance in animals. However, the whole virus antigen poses a high biohazard risk and can only be produced in biosafety level 4 laboratories. The present study focuses on the development and evaluation of safe, sensitive, and specific IgG indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) using recombinant nucleoprotein (NP) of CCHF virus as an antigen. The codon-optimized NP gene sequence was synthesized, cloned, and expressed in pET28a+ vector. The recombinant NP was purified to homogeneity by affinity chromatography and characterized through Western blot and MALDI-TOF/MS analysis. The characterized protein was used to develop an indirect IgG microplate ELISA using a panel of animal sera. The in-house ELISA was comparatively evaluated vis-à-vis a commercially available ELISA kit (Vector-Best, Russia) with 76 suspected samples that revealed a concordance of 90% with a sensitivity and specificity of 79.4 and 100%, respectively. The precision analysis revealed that the assay is robust and reproducible in different sets of conditions. Further, the assay was used for serosurveillance in ruminants from different regions of India that revealed 18% seropositivity in ruminants, indicating continued circulation of virus in the region. The findings suggest that the developed IgG iELISA employing recombinant NP is a safe and valuable tool for scalable high-throughput screening of CCHFV-specific antibodies in multiple species.

The Influenza A H1N1 virus of 2009 was the first pandemic flu virus of the 21st century. Identifying the emergence of mutations in rapidly mutating Influenza viruses that allow increased transmission or confer resistance are invaluable to global outbreak response. Here we recovered 5 complete Influenza A genomes from 4 oropharygeal swabs and one cell culture isolate from a severe Indian outbreak of flu in early 2015. Multiple amino acids substitutions including those known to confer resistance to Oseltamivir and increased pathogenecity in mice were found in the Neuraminidase gene. Additional mutations both reported and novel were found throughout the genome compared to the vaccine strain (California/04/2009). All eight segments of the complete genomes were found to be genetically related to the 2009 pandemic strain, A(H1N1)pdm09 and belonging to the emerging genogroup 6B. This group was found to be of south East Asian origin by time scale phylogentic analysis. A phylogeographic analysis revealed 39 significant migration events among globally circulating viruses. This study is the first extensive complete genome and phylogeographic analysis of 2015 Indian A(H1N1) pdm09 viruses. We report several novel mutations in the 2015 Indian strains which need to be evaluated for effect on viral replication, transmission and resistance to therapy. The identification of mutant A(H1N1)pdm09 from India warrants continuous monitoring of viral evolution for implementation of suitable medical countermeasures.

West Nile virus (WNV) has been found to be a common cause of neuroinvasive arboviral disease worldwide in human and horses. The process of RNA interference induced by small RNA molecules, like small interfering RNA (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA), proved to be a novel approach for preventing viral infections. So far there is no published data for inhibition of West Nile virus by vector delivered artificial miRNA which believed to have more inhibitory potential than small interfering (siRNA). In the present study, we designed two artificial miRNA (amiRNAs) targeting the conserved NS5 and NS2A genomic regions of West Nile virus. These amiRNAs oligos were cloned in to miRNA based vector having murine miR-155 backbone which allows the high expression of amiRNAs in green fluorescent protein (GFP) tagged form. Vero cells were transiently transfected by cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter derived vector expressing amiRNAs transcribed by RNA Pol II. Efficacy of amiRNA targeting the NS5 and NS2A regions of WNV was determined in highly virulent WNV Eg101 strain in Vero cells. The result indicated that both amiRNA effectively inhibit West Nile virus replication. The concatenated amiRNA having dual pre-amiRNA expression cassette showed better efficacy. amiRNA targeting NS5 showed best protection against WNV infection and percentage reduction of WNV titer was observed at 96 hpi is 97.11%. Further study for inhibition of WNV replication was assessed by plaque assay, quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (qRT-PCR) assay, Immunofluorescence assay and Western blot analysis. Present study concludes that amiRNA (NS5) targeting conserved region of gene significantly reduced the virus replication as determined by plaque assay. Similarly, reduction was also observed at RNA and protein level through real-time RT-PCR and Western blot analysis directly correlate with the inhibition of WNV replication. Here, we describe our current understanding of the role of miRNAs in host defense response against West Nile virus, as well as their potential as new therapeutic approaches.

Five complete (H1N1)pdm09 viral sequences were recovered from hospitalized individuals during the 2015 influenza outbreak by metagenomic sequencing. Four of the genomes are from oropharyngeal swabs, and one is from an isolate., Five complete (H1N1)pdm09 viral sequences were recovered from hospitalized individuals during the 2015 influenza outbreak by metagenomic sequencing. Four of the genomes are from oropharyngeal swabs, and one is from an isolate. All five sequences belong to an emerging 6B clade. Studying them further is critical for outbreak preparedness.

West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging mosquito-borne virus which is responsible for severe and fatal encephalitis in humans and for which there is no licensed vaccine or therapeutic available to prevent infection. The envelope domain III protein (EDIII) of WNV was over-expressed in Escherichia coli and purified using a two-step chromatography process which included immobilized metal affinity chromatography and ion exchange chromatography. E. coli cells were grown in a bioreactor to high density using batch and fed-batch cultivation. Wet biomass obtained after batch and fed-batch cultivation processes was 11.2 g and 84 g/L of culture respectively. Protein yield after affinity purification was 5.76 mg and 5.81 mg/g wet cell weight after batch and fed-batch processes respectively. The purified WNV EDIII elicited specific antibodies in rabbits, confirming its immunogenicity. Moreover, the antibodies were able to neutralize WNV in vitro. These results established that the refolded and purified WNV EDIII could be a potential vaccine candidate.

The recent outbreaks of West Nile Virus (WNV) in the Northeastern American continents and other regions of the world have made it essential to develop an efficient protocol for surveillance of WN virus. Nucleic acid based techniques like, RT-PCR have the advantage of sensitivity, specificity and rapidity. A one step single tube Env gene specific real-time RT-PCR was developed for early and reliable clinical diagnosis of WNV infection in clinical samples. The applicability of this assay for clinical diagnosis was validated with 105 suspected acute-phase serum and plasma samples from the recent epidemic of mysterious fever in Tamil Nadu, India in 2009-10. The comparative evaluation revealed the higher sensitivity of real-time RT-PCR assay by picking up 4 additional samples with low copy number of template in comparison to conventional RT-PCR. All the real-time positive samples further confirmed by CDC reported TaqMan real-time RT-PCR and quantitative real-time RT-PCR assays for the simultaneous detection of WNV lineage 1 and 2 strains. The quantitation of the viral load samples was done using a standard curve. These findings demonstrated that the assay has the potential usefulness for clinical diagnosis due to detection and quantification of WNV in acute-phase patient serum samples.

Background West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic flavivirus that causes viral encephalitis. Recent epidemics of WNV around the world have been associated with significant rates of mortality and morbidity in humans. The early confirmatory diagnosis of WNV infection is important for timely clinical management and epidemiological control in areas where multiple flaviviruses are endemic. Objective The aim of this study is to develop an monoclonal antibody based antigen capture ELISA for early confirmatory diagnosis of WNV infection with high degree of specificity and sensitivity having no cross reactivity with any of the closely related members of other circulating viruses. Study design The gene coding for the NS1 protein of WNV was cloned and expressed in pET-28a expression vector. Purified recombinant protein was then utilized for generation of mice monoclonal antibody (Mab) and hyper immune sera (HIS) in rabbit. The sandwich ELISA was developed using the rabbit HIS and mice Mab as capture and detector antibody respectively and the results were compared with real time RT-PCR by evaluating 105 suspected clinical samples. Results The comparative evaluation of the sandwich ELISA with real time RT-PCR revealed 97% concordance with sensitivity and specificity of 90% and 98% respectively. Conclusion The WN NS1 antigen was detectable in the blood from the first day up to day 9 after the onset of symptoms. The higher sensitivity and specificity of this monoclonal Antibody based sandwich ELISA makes it useful for early diagnosis of WN infection in endemic areas during outbreaks.

Despite the fact that Chikungunya resurgence is associated with epidemic of unprecedented magnitude, there are challenges in the field of its clinical diagnosis. However, serological tests in an ELISA format provide a rapid tool for the diagnosis of Chikungunya infection. Indeed, ELISAs based on recombinant proteins hold a great promise as these methods are cost effective and are free from the risk of handling biohazardous material. In this study, the performance of recombinant CHIKV antigens was compared in various ELISA formats for the diagnosis of Chikungunya. Two recombinant antigens derived from the envelope proteins of Chikungunya virus were prepared and evaluated by comparing their competence for detecting circulating antibodies in serum samples of patients infected with CHIKV using MAC-ELISA and indirect IgM-ELISA. The efficacy of the recombinant antigens was also compared with the native antigen. The indirect antibody capture IgM microplate ELISA revealed ≥90% concordance with the native antigen in detecting the CHIKV specific IgM antibodies whereas the recombinant antigen based MAC-ELISA showed 100% specificity. The recombinant antigens used in this study were effective and reliable targets for the diagnosis of CHIKV infection and also provide an alternative for native antigen use which is potentially biohazardous.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a neurotropic flavivirus that has emerged globally as a significant cause of viral encephalitis. The early confirmatory diagnosis of WNV infections is important for timely clinical management and epidemiologic control in areas where multiple flaviviruses are endemic. The coexistence of WNV along with other members of flaviviruses like dengue and Japanese encephalitis in India has complicated the serodiagnosis due to cross-reactive antigens. In the present study, the development and evaluation of a highly sensitive and specific IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using the recombinant envelope protein (rWNV-Env) for rapid, early, and accurate diagnosis of WNV are reported. The gene coding for the envelope protein of WNV was cloned and expressed in pET 28a vector followed by purification of recombinant protein by affinity chromatography. An indirect IgM microplate ELISA using purified rWNV-Env protein was optimized having no cross reactivity with healthy human serum. Furthermore, the specificity of this assay was confirmed by cross checking with serum samples obtained from patients with dengue and Japanese encephalitis viruses. The comparative evaluation of this rWNV-Env protein-specific IgM ELISA with plaque reduction neutralization test assay using 105 acute phase of clinical samples revealed 95% concordance with sensitivity and specificity of 92% and 97%, respectively. The positive and negative predictive values of recombinant-based Env ELISA were 94% and 96%, respectively. The recombinant envelope protein-based WNV-specific ELISA reported in this study will be useful for rapid screening of large numbers of clinical samples in endemic areas during outbreaks.

Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay is a powerful and innovative gene amplification technique that specifically amplifies the target gene under isothermal conditions with a high degree of sensitivity, rapidity and specificity. The major advantage of the LAMP assay is monitoring of amplified products without the requirement of any sophisticated equipment. In the present study a real time LAMP assay was employed for rapid and real time detection of Bacillus anthracis spores spiked in 0.1 g of soil and talcum powder ranging from 2 to 10(7) spores. DNA was isolated from spiked soil and talcum powder using PBS containing 1% Triton X-100, and heat treatment. Isolated DNA was used as template for LAMP and PCR. LAMP amplification was obtained in 60 min under isothermal condition at 63°C by employing a set of six primers targeting the pag gene of B. anthracis. The detection limit of LAMP assay in soil and talcum powder was found to be as low as 5 spores, compared to 10(3) spores and 10(4) spores by PCR in talcum powder and soil, respectively. The findings suggest that LAMP is a more rapid and sensitive assay than PCR for detecting anthrax spores, additionally the methodology to prepare DNA from spiked samples is simple, rapid and cost effective.

To investigate the aetiology of the 2015 A(H1N1)pdm09 influenza outbreak in India, 1,083 nasopharyngeal swabs from suspect patients were screened for influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 in the state of Madhya Pradesh. Of 412 positive specimens, six were further characterised by phylogenetic analysis of haemagglutinin (HA) sequences revealing that they belonged to genogroup 6B. A new mutation (E164G) was observed in HA2 of two sequences. Neuraminidase genes in two of 12 isolates from fatal cases on prior oseltamivir treatment harboured the H275Y mutation.

Background Influenza A virus is one of world’s major uncontrolled pathogen, causing seasonal epidemic as well as global pandemic. This was evidenced by recent emergence and continued prevalent 2009 swine origin pandemic H1N1 Influenza A virus, provoking first true pandemic in the past 40 years. In the course of its evolution, the virus acquired many mutations and multiple unidentified molecular determinants are likely responsible for the ability of the 2009 H1N1 virus to cause increased disease severity in humans. Availability of limited data on complete genome hampers the continuous monitoring of this type of events. Outbreaks with considerable morbidity and mortality have been reported from all parts of the country. Methods/Results Considering a large number of clinical cases of infection complete genome based sequence characterization of Indian H1N1pdm virus and their phylogenetic analysis with respect to circulating global viruses was undertaken, to reveal the phylodynamic pattern of H1N1pdm virus in India from 2009–2011. The Clade VII was observed as a major circulating clade in phylogenetic analysis. Selection pressure analysis revealed 18 positively selected sites in major surface proteins of H1N1pdm virus. Conclusions This study clearly revealed that clade VII has been identified as recent circulating clade in India as well globally. Few clade VII specific well identified markers undergone positive selection during virus evolution. Continuous monitoring of the H1N1pdm virus is warranted to track of the virus evolution and further transmission. This study will serve as a baseline data for future surveillance and also for development of suitable therapeutics.

An early diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis (JE) is important for timely clinical management and epidemiological control in areas where multiple flaviviruses are endemic. The NS1 antigen has an advantage over IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for early confirmatory diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection due to its proliferation on the surface of the host cells in the acute phase of infection. In this study, the development and evaluation of JE-specific NS1 antigen capture ELISA is described using high-affinity monoclonal antibody specific to the recombinant NS1 protein for early diagnosis of JE. The gene encoding NS1 protein was cloned and expressed in the pQE30UA expression vector followed by purification of the recombinant protein by affinity chromatography. A sandwich ELISA for antigen detection was developed using purified rabbit IgG antibody and mouse monoclonal antibody as the capture and detector antibody, respectively. The application of JE NS1 antigen ELISA for early diagnosis was evaluated with 120 acute phase sera and 80 CSF samples. The comparative evaluation of the JE NS1 antigen ELISA by real-time RT-PCR revealed 97% concordance with a sensitivity and specificity of 97% and 98%, respectively. The JE NS1 antigen was detectable in the blood from the first day up to day 9 after the onset of symptoms. These findings suggest that the JEV NS1 antigen capture ELISA may help early diagnosis of JE infection.