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Pharmaceutical activities of a fungus depend on its bioactive compounds composition. Pleurotus tuber-regium (paleotropical species) is a fungus used in Gabon and throughout tropical Africa for its culinary and medicinal properties. The aim of this study was to predict the therapeutic potential of this species, in particular of its carpophore and its sclerotia, based on the main chemical groups highlighted during the chemical screening of aqueous, hydro-ethanolic and ethanolic extracts. Chemical screening revealed that the three extracts (aqueous, hydro-ethanolic and ethanolic) prepared from the carpophore are rich in total polyphenols, alkaloids, coumarins and proanthocyanidins. Aqueous and hydro-ethanolic extracts are moderately rich in tannins and coumarins while the ethanolic extract is very rich in reducing sugars. About the sclerotia, the three extracts are rich in total polyphenols, alkaloids, reducing sugars and proanthocyanidins. Aqueous and hydro-ethanolic extracts are moderately rich in tannins, total flavonoids and coumarins. The dosage of phenolic compounds carried out on aqueous and hydro-ethanolic extracts confirmed the richness of this fungus in total polyphenols and proanthocyanidins, as well as its deficiency in flavonoids and tannins. The chemical groups thus identified in the carpophore and the sclerotium of P. tuber-regium allow to predict its antioxidant, antiallergic, antiplasmodial, anesthetic, analgesic, anticancer, vasodilator, anti-inflammatory and ant-mutagenic activities.

Members of Hymenochaetaceae fungi are among well-known macromycetes with various medicinal properties. The aim of this study was to investigate the biological activities of Phellinus tuberculosus and Fuscoporia ferruginosa collected in Iran. The antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic activities of the two species were examined, and their phenolic and polysaccharide contents were quantified. Compounds were characterized by HPLC–DAD chromatography and LC–ESI–MS/MS spectroscopy. According to our results, the antibacterial and antioxidant effects of P. tuberculosus extracts were stronger than F. ferruginosa. Also, the effect of hydroalcoholic extracts was higher than the aqueous extract. Gram-positive bacteria were more sensitive to all extracts, especially Streptococcus mutans with a MIC of 0.7 mg/mL and MBC of 6.25 mg/mL. HPLC–DAD analyses detected gallic acid, caffeic acid, and syringic acid in both fungi. The LC–ESI–MS/MS confirmed the detected compounds in HPLC–DAD and showed the presence of several phenolic compounds such as phellifuropyranone, phelligridin, and hispidin, besides others. This study showed that F. ferruginosa and P. tuberculosus are potent medicinal fungi with antibacterial and antioxidant properties, with no toxic effect on normal HDF cells, and possess various bioactive compounds including styrylpyrone-type phenols with well-known bioactivities.

The maintenance and conservation of strains of microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, and fungi are vital for the advancement and development of various life science areas, impacting studies in genetics, biodiversity, bioprospecting, biotechnology, medicine, veterinary, environment, food security, nutrition, among others. The preservation of this biological material has achieved the safeguarding of industrial potential and the possibility of researching new functions and the use for the benefit of humanity. Various culture preservation methods have been developed over the years, such as sterile distilled water, cryopreservation, freeze-drying, sub-culture, and sterile mineral oil; these allow storing strains of various microorganisms under appropriate conditions and for long periods. For the case of edible and medicinal fungi, the most used conservation methods are cryopreservation and sterile distilled water, guaranteeing the stability of the characteristics of these fungi, their viability, and their biological potential over time; however, the need to continue evaluating different methods and applications in this type of fungus persists.

Fungi are a rich source of secondary metabolites which constitutes a valuable and diverse chemical space of natural products. Medicinal fungi have been used in traditional medicine to treat human ailments for centuries. To date, there is no devoted resource on secondary metabolites and therapeutic uses of medicinal fungi. Such a dedicated resource compiling dispersed information on medicinal fungi across published literature will facilitate ongoing efforts towards natural product based drug discovery. Here, we present the first comprehensive manually curated database on Medicinal Fungi Secondary metabolites And Therapeutics (MeFSAT) that compiles information on 184 medicinal fungi, 1830 secondary metabolites and 149 therapeutics uses. Importantly, MeFSAT contains a non-redundant in silico natural product library of 1830 secondary metabolites along with information on their chemical structures, computed physicochemical properties, drug-likeness properties, predicted ADMET properties, molecular descriptors and predicted human target proteins. By comparing the physicochemical properties of secondary metabolites in MeFSAT with other small molecules collections, we find that fungal secondary metabolites have high stereochemical complexity and shape complexity similar to other natural product libraries. Based on multiple scoring schemes, we have filtered a subset of 228 drug-like secondary metabolites in MeFSAT database. By constructing and analyzing chemical similarity networks, we show that the chemical space of secondary metabolites in MeFSAT is highly diverse. The compiled information in MeFSAT database is openly accessible at: https://cb.imsc.res.in/mefsat/.

A homogeneous water-soluble flaky polysaccharide named LRP-1 (18.82 kDa) was extracted and purified from the rare edible and medicinal fungi Leccinum rugosiceps. The structure characterization of LRP-1 was analyzed by GPC, GC, GC–MS, FT-IR, SEM, 1D/2D NMR, and its antitumor and immunoregulatory activities were determined. The results show that LRP-1 is a new polysaccharide with a backbone which is mainly composed of →1-α-D-Fucp-3→, →1-α-D-Rhap-3→, →1-β-D-Glcp-6→, →1-β-D-Glcp-3→, →1-α-D-Glcp-4→, →1-β-D-Galp-6 → and →1-α-D-Manp-6→. Results of MTT assay show that LRP-1 inhibit the growth of human hepatoma cells HepG-2 and human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells in vitro. LRP-1 could also induce the secretion of NO and immune factors (IL-6 and TNF-α) of RAW264.7. This study suggests that LRP-1 has potential to be used as nutraceutical food with antitumor and immunoregulatory activities.

The deposition of amyloid beta (Aβ) is a neuropathological feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Cordyceps militaris is an edible medicinal fungus in Asian countries with antioxidative, antiaging, antitumor, and immunomodulatory effects. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective mechanisms of C. militaris in the brain of Aβ1-42-injected AD mice. An intracerebroventricular injection of Aβ1-42 (total 3 µg/mouse) resulted in neurological damage, including amyloidogenesis and neuroinflammation; however, C. militaris attenuated Aβ1-42-induced amyloidogenesis and inflammatory responses. Oral administration of C. militaris at concentrations of 100 and 200 mg/kg suppressed acetylcholinesterase activity. In addition, C. militaris treatment downregulated amyloid precursor protein levels, with a decrease in β-secretase activity. Moreover, C. militaris significantly enhanced the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Furthermore, C. militaris-administered groups had inactivated inflammatory responses by downregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 protein expression. The injection of Aβ1-42 resulted in the activation of p38 MAPK and c-Jun N-terminal kinase, which was rescued by C. militaris. These results suggest that C. militaris has a protective effect against Aβ1-42-induced neurological damage.

Ganoderma leucocontextum, a newly discovered species of Ganodermataceae in China, has diverse pharmacological activities. Ganoderma leucocontextum was widely cultivated in southwest China, but the systematic genetic study has been impeded by the lack of a reference genome. Herein, we present the first whole-genome assembly of G. leucocontextum based on the Illumina and Nanopore platform from high-quality DNA extracted from a monokaryon strain (DH-8). The generated genome was 50.05 Mb in size with an N50 scaffold size of 3.06 Mb, 78,206 coding sequences, and 13,390 putative genes. Genome completeness was assessed using the Benchmarking Universal Single-Copy Orthologs (BUSCO) tool, which identified 96.55% of the 280 Fungi BUSCO genes. Furthermore, differences in functional genes of secondary metabolites (terpenoids) were analyzed between G. leucocontextum and Ganoderma lucidum. Ganoderma leucocontextum has more genes related to terpenoids synthesis compared to G. lucidum, which may be one of the reasons why they exhibit different biological activities. This is the first genome assembly and annotation for G. leucocontextum, which would enrich the toolbox for biological and genetic studies in G. leucocontextum.

Many fungi form persistent and dormant sclerotia with compact hardened mycelia during unfavorable circumstances. While most of these sclerotia are small in size, Wolfiporia cocos, a wood-decay fungus, grows into giant sclerotia, which are mainly composed of polysaccharides of linear (1→3)-β-D-glucans. To explore the underlying mechanism of converting sophisticated wood polysaccharides for biosynthesis of highly homogenized glucans in W. cocos, we sequenced and assembled the genome of a cultivated W. cocos strain (WCLT) in China. The 62-Mb haploid genome contains 44.2% repeat sequences, of which, 48.0% are transposable elements (TEs). Contrary to the genome of W. cocos from North America, WCLT has independently undergone a partial genome duplication (PGD) event. The large-scale TE insertion and PGD occurrence overlapped with an archeological Pleistocene stage of low oxygen and high temperature, and these stresses might have induced the differences in sclerotium due to geographical distribution. The wood decomposition enzymes, as well as sclerotium-regulator kinases, aquaporins, and highly expanded gene families such as NAD-related families, together with actively expressed 1,3-β-glucan synthase for sclerotium polysaccharides, all have contributed to the sclerotium formation and expansion. This study shall inspire further exploration on how fungi convert wood into simple glucans in the sclerotium of W. cocos.

Methanol extracts of mosaic puffball (Handkea utriformis, Bovistella utriformis, Lycoperdon utriforme, Calvatia utriformis - current name is a subject of debate), from three different stages - mycelium (HUMIC), immature (HUI) and mature fruiting bodies (HUM) were characterized and tested for antioxidant, antimicrobial and inhibitory activity on tyrosinase, acetyholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMG-CoA-R). Immature, edible, fruiting bodies were shown to be a good source of antioxidants (11.5 mg/g of extract) and cholesterol-lowering agent, lovastatin (234 mu g/g of extract), and exhibited significant antimicrobial activity. In addition, HUI showed good and selective AChE (4.48 mg/mL) and non-lovastatin related HMG-CoA-R inhibition (1.16 mg/mL), which all together suggests that regular consumption of it may have health benefits. Mature fruiting bodies, inedible due to powdery consistence, have been used in traditional medicine for wound treatment; their extract was relatively rich in free ergosterol (31.65 mg/g of extract), N-acetylglucosamine (24 mg/g of extract), alpha-tocopherol (4 mg/g of extract) and had best overall antioxidant activity, which was in correlation with its highest phenolic content (19.4 mg GAE/mL). It also exhibited significant tyrosinase inhibitory activity (0.22 mg/mL) and thus could be used in medicinal and cosmetic products for wound healing and bleaching. Mycelium, which can be easily grown in laboratory conditions did not have the same properties as, neither immature or mature fruiting bodies, although it showed prominent antimicrobial activity, notably against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (MIC = 0.0625 mg/mL) and could be a source of antimicrobial compounds. &nbsp

Water extracts of the edible mushroom Cordyceps militaris possess a lipid-lowering effect. However, the types of components and how they exert this effect are not clear. In this study, two novel polysaccharides, CM1 and CMS, were isolated, and their cholesterol efflux improving capacity was investigated in vitro. The molecular weight of CM1 was approximately 700 kDa, and its main chain was consisted of (1 → 4)-β-D-Glcp and (1 → 2)-α-D-manp branched at the O-6 positions of (1 → 2,6)-α-D-manp with (1 → 2) linked-β-D-galf, (1 → 2)-α-D-manp or methyl and terminated with β-D-Galf and α-D-Manp. The molecular weight of CMS was approximately 18.2 kDa, and it was a novel (1 → 6)-β-D-Glcp linked glucan. Both CM1 and CMS significantly increased [3H]-cholesterol efflux by activating the protein expression of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) G1. However, they showed no significant influence on the proteins expression of ABCA1 and scavenger receptor B type 1. Therefore, CM1 and CMS are effective water-soluble components with potential lipid-lowering activity. They may be exploited as potential candidates for dyslipidaemia-related diseases such as atherosclerosis.

To explore bioactive polysaccharides from medicinal fungi, a homogeneous heteropolysaccharide SB1-1 was extracted from the stroma of Shiraia bambusicola by enzyme assisted extraction, ethanol precipitation, anion-exchange and size-exclusion chromatographies. Chemical and spectroscopic analyses showed that SB1-1 was a neutral polysaccharide composed of mannose, glucose and galactose at a molar ratio of 1.1:1.9:1.0, and had a molecular weight of 18.3 kDa. SB1-1 was composed of a mannan core and glucose and galactose side chains. The mannan core was composed of (1 → 2)-α-Manp substituted by the side chains (1 → 6)-α-d-Manp, (1 → 4)-α-d-Glcp and (1 → 6)-α-d-Glcp with different degrees of polymerization at the C-6. The galactose side chains had the backbone of (1 → 6)-β-d-Galf. There were two branch sites on every five sugars on average at the O-2 of →6)-β-Galf(1→, and the branches consisted of →2)-β-d-Galf(1→ and terminal β-d-Galf(1→. The potential immunomodulatory activities of SB1-1 on RAW264.7 macrophages were investigated. The results showed that SB1-1 could activate macrophage and significantly improve its phagocytic ability by neutral red uptake assay. Additionally, SB1-1 enhanced the productions of IL-1, IL-6, IL-12 and TNF-α in the RAW264.7 macrophages by stimulation of SB1-1, while significantly increased the production of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) production. This study demonstrated that the galactofuranose-containing polysaccharide SB1-1 from S. bambusicola which is a novel mannogalactoglucan, could enhance the activation of macrophages.

Alarming increase in microbial resistance to existing synthetic commercial antibiotics forced scientists to search for new antimicrobials from various alternative sources. The present study carried out during the year 2014-2015, presents the antimicrobial potential of some mushroom extracts against some commonly found pathogenic bacterial and fungal microbes. During the study four mushroom species, viz. Lentinus tigrinus (Bull.) Fr., Fomitopsis pinicola (Sw.) P.Karst, Inonotus hispidus (Bull.) P.Karst and Ramaria formosa (Pers.) Quel. were evaluated for their antimicrobial activity against both gram positive (Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus), gram negative (Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and fungi (Saccharomyces cerevisiae Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans, Penicillium chrysogenum and Aspergillus fumigates). The results revealed that ethyl acetate and methanolic extract of all the mushroom extracts showed significant antimicrobial activity against most of the bacterial and fungal microbes. However, the aqueous extract of these mushrooms was found either lacking or conferring insignificant antimicrobial activity. The ethyl acetate extracts of Ramaria formosa and Lentinus tigrinus produced more promising results against the bacterial microbes than fungal counterparts. Both ethyl acetate and methanolic extracts of Fomitopsis pinicola and Inonotus hispidus exhibited strong antimicrobial activity against the selected set of microbes. The antibacterial and antifungal activity exhibited by Fomitopsis pinicola at the concentration 150mg/ml was almost parallel to 10µg gentamycin and 50µg nystatin respectively. Therefore, Fomitopsis pinicola signifies as one of the promising mushroom species possessing strong antimicrobial activity against broad spectrum of microbes.

The purpose of this account is to review the compounds capable of eliciting mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in cancer cells produced by medicinal fungi and plants. The medicinal fungi discussed encompass Cordyceps, Ganoderma species, Coriolus versicolor and Hypsizygus marmoreus. The medicinal plants discussed comprise Astragalus complanatus, Dendrobium spp, Dioscorea spp, Glycyrrhiza spp, Panax notoginseng, Panax ginseng, and Momordica charantia. These compounds have the potential of development into anticancer drugs.

The chaga medicinal mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) was traditionally used to treat various ailments. To establish the pharmacological properties of I. obliquus, studies were performed to show the antiulcer activity of the ethanolic extract. The ethanolic extract of I. obliquus was prepared. The antiulcer activity of I. obliquus was determined using gastric ulcerated rats (ulceration induced by ethanol). The ethanolic extract of I. obliquus (200 mg/kg) did not cause any sign of toxicity or sensitivity to rats when the extracts were administered by oral feed. Oral administration of ethanolic extract of I. obliquus exhibited antiulcer activity in all models used. The ethanolic extract of I. obliquus showed an effective antiulcer activity, which could be due to the presence of various biologically active compounds. This confirmed the traditional uses of I. obliquus in the treatment of ailments.

Previous studies showed that some mushrooms are highly efficient in inhibiting acetylcholinesterase and tyrosinase, the increased activity of which can trigger the development of Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. Starting from the fact that free radicals at high concentrations could cause neurodegenerative disorders as well as great interest in new, natural antineurodegenerative drugs, the goal of this study was to determine the in vitro antioxidative and neuroprotective potentials of various Pleurotus ostreatus and Laetiporus sulphureus extracts. L. sulphureus was a better antioxidative agent; it showed higher reducing power, was a more efficient scavenger of DPPH and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) radicals, and was an Fe3+ reducer. The most efficient acetylcholinesterase inhibitor was hot water extract of P. ostreatus fruiting body, which was slightly weaker than the commercial preparation, galantamine. However, in comparison with α-kojic acid, tested extracts were weaker tyrosinase inhibitors. Considering that tested extracts were rich in phenols and that their amounts were in positive correlation with the extent of radical neutralization and acetylcholinesterase and tyrosinase inhibition, it is assumed that these compounds are the potential carriers of the neuroprotective activities. Owing to the significant antioxidative and antineurodegenerative capacity of these species, they can be suggested as novel nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals.

Recently, the entomopathogenic fungus Polycephalomyces nipponicus has been determined to be a prolific producer of bioactive compounds that have both antibacterial and antimarial activities, but the anticancer effects of the mycelial extracts have not been well studied. The present study investigates the effects and mechanisms of action of P. nipponicus extracts that are responsible for cell death in the human breast cancer MCF-7 cell line. The results showed that the 50% ethanol extract had greater anticancer activity than the aqueous extract. The 50% ethanolic extract inhibited cell growth at concentrations of just 109.75 ± 3.54 µg mL-1 for 72 h. The aqueous extract's activity was > 400 µg mL-1 against MCF-7 cells. Similar results were obtained from the colony formation assay. Moreover, the 50% ethanolic extract caused a significant increase in the distribution of cells at the G1 phase in a dose-dependent manner. The aqueous extract induced MCF-7 cells to arrest at the G2/M phase in a dose-dependent manner. These were supported by the reduction in the cyclin-dependent kinase (cdk)2, cdk4, and cdk6 genes' expression levels along with an induction of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 in MCF-7 cells after treatment with the extracts. In conclusion, P. nipponicus may be useful for breast cancer prevention and treatment in the future.

Chaga (Inonotus obliquus) is a parasitic fungus, which has been used in traditional medicine in Russia and other northern European countries in the treatment of cancer, gastrointestinal andliver diseases. It has been a subject of intensive researchrecently, confirming many of its health-beneficial effects. In order to obtain a product that would allow modified and prolonged release of the Chaga’s active metabolites, hot water Chaga extract was immobilized using calcium - alginate. The extract, which was predominantly composed of carbohydrates (57 %), also contained a relatively high amount of antioxidants/phenolic compounds (130 mg gallic acid equivalents per g of dry extract) and exhibited pronounced radical scavenging activity. It showed significant antibacterial activity as well, inhibiting growth of tested bacterial strains at concentrations of 1.25-20 mg/mL. Entrapment efficiency was about 80 %, and the extract-alginate system showed pH-dependant extract release; there was negligible release at pH 1.75 (gastric pH), and the release gradually increased with the increase in pH, reaching ~43 % of immobilized extract at pH 8.5 after 90 min. Such a product could be used as a dietary supplement, adjuvant in therapy of gastrointestinal diseases or as a food additive. [Project of the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development, Grant no. III46010]

The multicomponent mixtures consisting of herbs and fungi are commonly used for the production of alcoholic beverages with potential health-promoting effects in many Asian countries. The medicinal fungus Ganoderma lucidum is one of the most important fungi used for spirit production. Although this fungus affects the aromatic complexity of spirits, only a small number of studies have focused on investigating the influence of G. lucidum on the aromatic profile and colour of spirits. The aim of the research is to evaluate the influence of adding G. lucidum and herbal extract on final concentrations of volatile compounds and sensory quality of several distillates. In this study, distillates (grain, plum, grape and wine) were used to produce new spirit-based beverages with the fungus G. lucidum only, or with the fungus and herbal extract. Fifty-nine aroma compounds were identified by GC-MS. The aromatic profiles were strongly influenced by the primary aromas of the distillates, but the addition of G. lucidum and herbal extract enriched the volatile fraction of distillates with a range of ethyl esters, with a fruity and floral fragrance. Higher alcohols, 1-propanol, 2-isobutanol and isoamyl alcohol, were the most abundant volatile compounds in the analyzed distillates and spirits. The lightness of distillates was from 60.7 to 63.6, and with the addition of Ganoderma it significantly decreased to the range from 43.6 to 50.5. The addition of the fungus also increased the intensity of red and yellow colours. The Ganoderma spirits scored very highly in sensory evaluation (17.6–18.3), significantly better than the spirits without any additions (16.1–16.9).

Cordyceps militaris is a species of Cordyceps that is classified in the Cordycipitaceae family and is well known in East Asia as a traditional medicinal mushroom. Its artificial fruit body has been widely cultivated for commercial use in cosmetics, functional food, and medicine. To explore the metabolites associated with fruit body development, we conducted gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses based on developmental stage, which was divided into the growth period (stage 1, stage 2, and stage 3) and aging period (stage 4). We detected 39 biochemical metabolites associated with nucleotide, carbohydrate, and amino acid metabolism. Cordycepin, one of the representative bioactive compounds in C. militaris, was significantly enriched in stage 4 of aging period and is associated with glucose accumulation. The accumulation of cordycepin in stage 4 of aging period also seems to be related to the glutamine and glutamic acid pathway. Our results also showed enrichment of other bioactive compounds such as mannitol and xylitol in stage 4 of aging period. Our metabolomic profiling based on the developmental stages of C. militaris is useful for exploring bioactive compounds (e.g., cordycepin, mannitol, GABA, and xylitol) that are enriched in stage 4 of aging period and understanding the biosynthetic mechanisms associated with cordycepin production. Through optimization of fruit body cultivation by selecting stage 4 of aging period as a harvesting time, our findings can be utilized in food and medical applications of C. militaris in future.

Fungi have a vital role in ecological processes, a s an indicator of health of an ecosystem, it is not only has the poten cy for medicine and food but also variety of unexplored potential. Arboretum has high potential for biological conservation including fungi species, so information on its diversity and poten cy are very important for the basis of its management . The purpose of this research was to explore the diversity of species and the potential of macroscopic fungi in the BP2LHK Manado Arboretum. O bservations were conducted 8 times in May, June, and September 2016 using a cruise and an opportunistic method . The infromation of growth media, light intensity, and temperature were collected as a supporting data . The result showed that arboretum stored 48 species of macroscopic fungi with different characteristics . 39 species were identified, divided into 2 divisions, 6 classes, 9 orders, and 17 families, while the remaining 9 species were unidentified. . The results showed that the diversity of macroscopic species habitat were dominated by 31 species grown on necromass , 11 species grown on litter and 6 species grown on soil. Based on its potential, there were 2 species of toxic fungi, 1 species of edible and medicinal fungus, 2 species of edible fungi , 5 species with medicinal fungi, 1 9 species were not edible, and 19 species with unknown benefits. Keyword: arboretum, diversity, macroscopic fungi, Manado

Many fungi are greatly beneficial to human beings because of their delicacy and important medicinal values such as anti-tumor and immunological properties and other pharmacological activities. As one of the worldwide biodiversity hotspots located in the East Himalaya-Hengduan Mountains, China’s Yunnan has long been known as the “Kingdom of Fungi” due to its geological, geographical, and ecological complexities. Living in the “Kingdom,” people with many nationalities there have acquired rich knowledge and have a long history in utilizing fungi as food and medicine in different ways. However, due to global changes, some fungi are in danger of extinction. In this chapter, we briefly introduce the speculative causes of the high biodiversity of fungi/mushrooms in this area and the history of utilization of medicinal mushrooms in Yunnan. We summarize the diversity of medicinal fungi in Yunnan and pinpoint some important local medicinal species, such as Cryptoporus sinensis, Engleromyces sinensis, Ganoderma lingzhi, Ophiocordyceps sinensis, Sanghuangporus sanghuang, and Shiraia bambusicola, and their morphology, distribution, and resource availability. Finally, we emphasize the sustainable utilization of medicinal species in Yunnan, particularly conservation measurement and resource management.

Submerged culturing of mycelium is an efficient technique used to increase biomass yields, more so when employed with naturally slow-growing species of mushrooms. This paper is concerned with optimizing nutrient broth components used in Inonotus obliquus cultures for achieving high biomass yields. We modeled the effect of seven biotechnological parameters (six broth ingredients and the initial pH of nutritive broth) on mycelial biomass and predicted an optimum broth formula using response surface methodology. An analysis of variance showed that the elaborated model is significant (F-value of 2.76 and p-value of 0.0316). We used bioreactor cultures to confirm the model’s optimum prediction and to compare these results with a general-purpose mycology medium, namely potato dextrose broth (PDB). The optimized bioreactor culture yielded 4.37 g/L (93.36% of the dry weight prediction), while the PDB bioreactor culture yielded 2.084 g/L, after 15 days of cultivation. The optimized formula was: 2.15299 g malt extract, 3.99296 g yeast extract, 11.0041 g fructose, 17.4 g soluble starch, 0.1 g MgSO4, and 0.05 g CaCl2 per liter of broth.

Mycomedicine is a unique class of natural medicine that has been widely used in Asian countries for thousands of years. Modern mycomedicine consists of fruiting bodies, spores, or other tissues of medicinal fungi, as well as bioactive components extracted from them, including polysaccharides and, triterpenoids, etc. Since the discovery of the famous fungal extract, penicillin, by Alexander Fleming in the late 19th century, researchers have realised the significant antibiotic and other medicinal values of fungal extracts. As medicinal fungi and fungal metabolites can induce apoptosis or autophagy, enhance the immune response, and reduce metastatic potential, several types of mushrooms, such as Ganoderma lucidum and Grifola frondosa, have been extensively investigated, and anti-cancer drugs have been developed from their extracts. Although some studies have highlighted the anti-cancer properties of a single, specific mushroom, only limited reviews have summarised diverse medicinal fungi as mycomedicine. In this review, we not only list the structures and functions of pharmaceutically active components isolated from mycomedicine, but also summarise the mechanisms underlying the potent bioactivities of several representative mushrooms in the Kingdom Fungi against various types of tumour.

Previously, we have demonstrated the antiadipogenic benefits of Ganoderma triterpenoids (GTs), which indicated GTs have potential therapeutic implications for obesity. In this study, the EtOAc extract of Ganoderma applanatum was further phytochemically investigated for searching new antiadipogenic agents, which led to the isolation of a total of 15 highly oxygenated lanostane triterpenoids, including 9 new compounds (1-9) and 6 known analogues (10-15). Structurally, ganodapplanoic acids A and B (1, 2) are two rearranged 6/6/5/6-fused lanostane-type triterpenoids with an unusual C-13/C-15 oxygen bridge moiety. In addition, the EtOAc extract (GAE) and isolates (1-4,6-15) were assayed for their antiadipogenic effects in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The results revealed that compound 9 effectively repressed adipogenesis through down-regulating the expression of major proteins (PPARγ, CEBPβ and FAS) involving differentiation and adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Thus, the present study further demonstrated the antiadipogenic potential of GTs and provided a possible perspective for obesity treatment.

According to official data, about 2000 mushrooms belong to the category of medical mushrooms, while over 600 have already confirmed medical properties. The aim and task of this work were to collect, analyze and process scientific and expert data of biologically active components of selected Basidiomycetes fungi: Letinula edodes, Ganoderma Lucidum, Grifola frondosa, Trametes versicolor and Inonotus obliquus. Areas of fungi therapy and the search for new immunomodulatory agents are far from being restricted to these species alone, however, these five may serve as typical representatives of widespread medicinal fungi used in both traditional medicine and modern biomedical research. Their biologically active components have different pharmacological effects, and beta-glucan polysaccharides, which are recognized as immunomodulators, are of particular importance. Many of the fungal beta-glucans tested have switched to pharmaceuticals such as Lentinan, Sonifilan, Krestin and GanoPoly, which speaks to their pharmacological and research potential. Citing the results of scientific advances in the last two decades, the results of preclinical tests and the results of clinical studies can confirm that supplementation with medical fungi can increase treatment success or mitigate the negative side effects of different therapies. A long-term weakened immune system is a risk factor for malignancies, so it can be concluded that disease prevention is beneficial for each individual and deserves the same attention paid to treating the disease.

β- d -glucan is a major type of bioactive polysaccharide commonly found in edible fungi, especially Lentinus, Cordyceps, and Ganoderma, which are among the most popular and treasured edible and medicinal fungi since ancient times in China. The β-glucans isolated from Lentinus, Cordyceps, and Ganoderma were a kind of homopolysaccharide with backbones of β-(1 → 3)-linked, β-(1 → 6)-linked, and/or β-(1 → 4)-linked d -glucan, and the branching point located at O-6, O-3, or O-4 position. Among them, a characteristic structure of linear β-(1 → 3)- d -glucan with (1 → 6)-β- d -Glcp side chains is frequently reported. For example, lentinan from Lentinus edodes (yield 5%, w/w) has been applied in adjuvant therapy for cancer diseases through the enhancement of immune system. In particular, β-(1 → 3)-glucan with triple helical chain conformation was most effective. Other kinds of chemical structures, including β-(1 → 6)- d -glucan, β-(1 → 4)- d -glucan, as well as a mixed β-(1 → 3)(1 → 4)(1 → 6)-backboned d -glucan, were also reported. This chapter aims to summarize the advances in research of β-glucans derived from Lentinus, Cordyceps, and Ganoderma species, focusing on their isolation methods, purification processes, detailed structures, and chain conformation. Besides, a range of functional activities are comprehensively reviewed, including immunomodulatory, antitumor, anticancer, antivirus, antioxidant activities, etc. Potential for further developments and applications is also briefly discussed.

In times of health crisis, including the current COVID-19 pandemic, the potential benefit of botanical drugs and supplements emerges as a focus of attention, although controversial efficacy claims are rightly a concern. Phytotherapy has an established role in everyday selfcare and health care, and since botanical preparations contain many chemical constituents rather than single compounds, challenges arise in demonstrating efficacy and safety. However, there is ample traditional, empirical and clinical evidence that botanicals can offer some protection and alleviation of disease symptoms as well as promoting general well-being. Newly emerging viral infections, specifically COVID-19, represent a unique challenge in their novelty and absence of established antiviral treatment or immunization. We discuss here the roles and limitations of phytotherapy in helping to prevent and address viral infections, and specifically regarding their effects on immune response. Botanicals with a documented immunomodulatory, immunostimulatory, and anti-inflammatory effect include adaptogens, Boswellia spp., Curcuma longa, Echinacea spp., Glycyrrhiza spp., medicinal fungi, Pelargonium sidoides, salicylate-yielding herbs, and Sambucus spp. We further provide a clinical perspective on applications and safety of these herbs in prevention, onset, progression, and convalescence from respiratory viral infections.

Medicinal fungi have diverse biological properties such as anti-inflammatory, anticancerous, antidiabetic, and antioxidative activities. Mushrooms are known to possess bioactive molecules, i.e., polysaccharides like β-glucans, triterpenoids, and antioxidants. These molecules are known to have therapeutic activities including immunomodulation. Among these medicinal mushrooms, species of Ganoderma like G. lucidum, commonly called as Reishi (traditional Chinese medicine), has shown a potential anticancer activity. Polysaccharides extracted from this mushroom show anticancer activity through immunomodulation. Chaga, Inonotus obliquus, is another mushroom been used as a folk medicine against cancer. Cordyceps is one of the most important health foods of humans, which grows on larvae of moths and converts each larva into a sclerotium, from which the stroma and fruit body grows. Another medicinal mushroom, Phellinus linteus containing Beta D-Glucan and lectin was shown to have immunomodulating effects. Xylaria is commonly known as dead man finger fungus, some of its species producing sesquiterpenes have been used as medicine for treating insomnia and depression. The purpose of this review is to summarize information regarding pharmacologically important compounds from medicinal fungi.

The inhibition of mushroom tyrosinase activity in vitro has commonly been employed for evaluation of the whitening effects of various drugs and cosmetic products because tyrosinase is the limiting enzyme in melanin formation in skin. However, questions remain as to whether the in vitro inhibition of tyrosinase activity adequately represents the whiting effects since it does not account for cellular uptake of test samples. We therefore evaluated the correlations of the inhibition of cell-free mushroom tyrosinase activity with that of cellular tyrosinase activity and melanin formation in A2058 melanoma cell line using kojic acid, ascorbic acid and water extracts of seven Chinese herbs and seven mixtures of these herbs extracted with water, ethanol or ethyl acetate at different temperatures. No significant correlation was found for the inhibition of: (1) mushroom tyrosinase activity vs. cellular tyrosinase activity (r=0.37, p=0.25, n=16) or vs. cellular melanin formation (r=0.32, p=0.28); and (2) cellular tyrosinase activity vs. cellular melanin formation (r=0.18, p=0.43). Ultraviolet A irradiation of melanoma cells A2058 markedly improved the correlation between the inhibition of cellular tyrosinase and of melanin formation of these samples (r=0.97, p＜0.001). The results suggest that UVA irradiation of melanoma A2058 cells be a useful screening method for evaluating the potential whitening effect of Chinese herbs.

Simple Summary Fungal probiotics and ferments have potential as feed additives, but their use has long been ignored. The main goal of this review article is to report on the potential benefits and hazards of fungal feed additives. Previous research indicates that fungal feed additives enhance antioxidant capacity and decrease the inflammatory response in animals through polysaccharides, triterpenes, polyphenols, ergosterol, and adenosine. Accordingly, fungal feed additives could further enhance growth performance and animal health and could be of functional use. Abstract As probiotics, fungi enhance animal health and are suitable animal feed additives. In addition to brewing fungi, there are also edible and medicinal fungi. Common fungi utilized in feeding programs include Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus oryzae, Pleurotus spp., Antrodia cinnamomea, and Cordyceps militaris. These fungi are rich in glucans, polysaccharides, polyphenols, triterpenes, ergosterol, adenosine, and laccases. These functional components play important roles in antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and immune system regulation. As such, fungal feed additives could be of potential use when breeding livestock. In previous studies, fungal feed additives enhanced body weight and egg production in poultry and improved the feed conversion rate. Several mycotoxins can be produced by hazardous fungi but fortunately, the cell walls constituents and enzymes of fungal probiotics can also act to decrease the toxicity of mycotoxins. Overall, fungal feed additives are of value, but their safety and usage must be studied further, including cost-benefit economic analyses.

Ethyl 8-hydroxy-4-methoxyquinoline-2-carboxylate (1) and a new compound, erinacerin U (2), were isolated from the mycelia of Hericium erinaceum. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic analysis. Compound 1 was found to possess a significant inhibition on the production of NO in LPS-activated microglia.

Chitin and chitosan with unique properties and numerous applications can be produced from fungus. The production of chitin and chitosan from the mycelia of an Iranian Ganoderma lucidum was studied to improve cell growth and chitin productivity. Inoculum size and initial pH as two effective variables on the growth of G. lucidum and chitin production were optimized using response surface method (RSM) by central composite design (CCD). The results verified the significant effect of these two variables on the cell growth and chitin production. In optimum conditions, including pH = 5.7 and inoculum size of 7.4%, the cell dry weight was 5.91 g/L and the amount of chitin production was 1.08 g/L with the productivity of 0.083 g/(L day). The produced chitin and chitosan were characterized using XRD and FTIR. Moreover, the antibacterial activity of the produced chitosan was investigated and compared with the commercial chitosan. The results showed that the produced chitin and chitosan had suitable quality and the Iranian G. lucidum would be a great source for safe and high-quality chitin and chitosan production.

Withinthis study 40 samples including sequential extracts, water extracts and drugsamples obtained from five mushroom samples wild grown from Turkey wereevaluated for their mineral composition analysis. All samples were found asrich sources of minerals notably Ca, K, Si, Mg, Se and Si which mightcontribute health enhancing properties. The levels of heavy metals weredetected in low amounts in the extracts of mushroom species (except T. populinum). Acetone and ethyl acetatewere detected as the most efficient solvents in the isolation of minerals frommushroom samples. Our findings showed that extracting of mineral compounds werevaried due to the type of solvents applied and mycochemical diversity and the reportedmineral compounds profiles suggest that these wild-edible mushrooms might bepotential sources of therapeutic nutraceuticals., Within this study 40 samples including sequential extracts, water extracts and drug samples obtained from five mushroom samples wild grown from Turkey were evaluated for their mineral composition analysis. All samples were found as rich sources of minerals notably Ca, K, Si, Mg, Se and Si which might contribute health enhancing properties. The levels of heavy metals were detected in low amounts in the extracts of mushroom species (except T. populinum). Acetone and ethyl acetate were detected as the most efficient solvents in the isolation of minerals from mushroom samples. Our findings showed that extracting of mineral compounds were varied due to the type of solvents applied and mycochemical diversity and the reported mineral compounds profiles suggest that these wild-edible mushrooms might be potential sources of therapeutic nutraceuticals.

A silkworm infection assay with the pathogenic fungus Rhizopus oryzae was established. Microbial culture broths were screened for anti-Rhizopus antibiotics using this assay. A new compound, tanzawaic acid R was isolated along with known and structurally related tanzawaic acids and arohynapene A from the culture broth of the hot spring-derived fungus Penicillium sp. BF-0005. The structure of tanzawaic acid R was elucidated by various spectroscopic data including 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Tanzawaic acids A, B, C, and R and arohynapene A exhibited antifungal activity against R. oryzae. Tanzawaic acids A and B dose-dependently exerted therapeutic effects in the silkworm infection assay with R. oryzae.

Hypocrellin A (HA) is a major bioactive perylenequinone from the fruiting body of Shiraia bambusicola used for the treatment of skin diseases and developed as a photodynamic therapy (PDT) agent against cancers and viruses. The mycelial culture of S. bambusicola under dark is a biotechnological alternative for HA production but with low yield. In this study, light and dark conditions were investigated to develop effective elicitation on HA production in the cultures. Our results showed the constant light at 200 lx stimulated HA production without any growth retardation of mycelia. A light/dark shift (24: 24 h) not only increased HA content in mycelia by 65%, but stimulated HA release into the medium with the highest total HA production 181.67 mg/L on day 8, about 73% increase over the dark control. Moreover, light/dark shifting induced the formation of smaller and more compact fungal pellets, suggesting a new effective strategy for large-scale production of HA in mycelium cultures. The light/dark shift up-regulated the expression levels of two reactive oxygen species (ROS) related genes including superoxide-generating NADPH oxidase (Nox) and cytochrome c peroxidase (CCP), and induced the generation of ROS. With the treatment of vitamin C, we found that ROS was involved in the up-regulated expression of key biosynthetical genes for hypocrellins and improved HA production. These results provide a basis for understanding the influence of light/dark shift on fungal metabolism and the application of a novel strategy for enhancing HA production in submerged Shiraia cultures.

Pestalustaines A (1) and B (2), one unique sesquiterpene possessing an unusual 5/6/7-fused tricyclic ring system and one unprecedented coumarin derivative bearing 6/6/5/5-fused tetracyclic ring system, were isolated from the plant-derived Pestalotiopsis adusta. Their structures with absolute configurations were established by extensive NMR analysis, X-ray crystallography, and CD spectra associated with TD-DFT calculation. Hypothetical biosynthetic pathways for compounds 1 and 2 are proposed. Compounds 1 and 2 showed weak to moderate cytotoxic activities against three human tumor cell lines HeLa, HCT116, and A549, whose IC50 values were ranged from 21.01 to 55.43 μM.

The Pleurotus genus is one of most extensively studied white-rot fungi due to its exceptional ligninolytic properties. It is an edible mushroom that possesses biological effects, as it contains important bioactive molecules. It is a rich source of nutrients, particularly proteins, minerals as well as vitamins B, C and D. In basidiomycete fungi, intensive cultivations of edible mushrooms can often be affected by some bacterial, mold and virus diseases that rather frequently cause dramatic production loss. These infections are facilitated by the particular conditions under which mushroom cultivation is commonly carried out such as warm temperatures, humidity, carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and presence of pests. There is not much bibliographic information related to pests of mushrooms and their substrates. The updated review presents a practical checklist of diseases and pests of the Pleurotus genus, providing useful information that may help different users.

The Chinese medicine “Lingzhi”, one of the well-studied medicinal fungi, is an ideal medicinal model fungus for studying the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. In this study, two candidate genes encoding sesquiterpene synthases were obtained from Ganoderma sinense genome database. The full-length cDNAs of these two genes were amplified from the total RNA of Ganoderma sin ense by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR). Then the sesquiterpene synthase genes were cloned into pET28a vector and transferred into Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) BL21(DE3). SDS-PAGE analysis showed that these recombinant sesquiterpene synthases were successfully expressed in soluble form in E. coli BL21(DE3). The results of solid-phase micro-extraction and GC-MS(SPME-GC-MS) revealed that recombinant sesquiterpene synthases yielded sesquiterpene compounds. This paper will establish a foundation for future studies on the relationship between the structure and function of fungal sesquiterpene synthases and the molecular mechanisms underlying the diversity of their products.

Trametes species represents a rich source of nutritive compounds with important pharmacological properties like antioxidant, antiinflammatory and anti-cancer properties. However, factors like genetic background, harvesting period, geographic location, climatic conditions and others are influencing the biosynthesis of bioactive compounds, their fingerprint and their concentration. The aim of this study was to determine the antioxidant capacity, total phenolic compounds and total flavonoids content of two mushroom species, namely Tramestes versicolor (TV) and Trametes gibbosa (TG), mushrooms with potential health benefits, harvested from north-west part of Romania. In order to determine the phenolic compounds profile, water, methanol, and acetone mushroom extracts were analyzed using UV-Vis spectroscopy, FTIR spectroscopy and LC-MS analysis. In total 28 compounds were tentatively identified as phenolic acids (11 compounds), flavonols (6 compounds), flavones (6 compounds), coumarins (2 compounds), flavanols, isoflavonoids and biflavonoids (1 compound). The highest antioxidant activity was determined for the methanolic extract while the highest total polyphenols content and total flavonoids content were determined for the water extract. The results obtained suggested that Trametes species can be considered important sources of bioactive compounds, their phenolics composition and content being influenced by a series of factors like geographic area origin and genetic background.

Background Wild mushrooms constitute an important non-timber forest product that provides diverse substances and services, especially food and income for local communities from many parts of the world. This study presents original ethnomycological documentation from the dense rainforests of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Methods Ethnomycological surveys were made within local communities near the biosphere reserve of Yangambi and the Yoko forest reserve. The interviews involved 160 informants from six different ethnic communities (Bakumu, Turumbu, Topoke, Lokele, Ngelema, and Ngando). Specific reported use (RU), the relative importance (RI), and the cultural significance (CS) of wild edible fungi were calculated using quantitative data from enquiries. Results The people from Tshopo use 73 species of wild mushrooms either for food (68 species), as medicine (9 species), in a recreational context (2 species), or related to myths and beliefs (7 species). Women are more involved in harvesting and are the main holders of cultural aspects related to fungi. The results show that knowledge of useful mushrooms differs between ethnic groups. The Ngando people have the highest ethnomycological expertise, which is expressed in their extensive cultural and practical use of fungi. Pleurotus tuber-regium is the most important species (MCSI = 1.9 and p value

The article is devoted to a promising direction in pharmacological mycology and biotechnology, namely the use of Basidiomycetes as a biologically active substance for preparation of pharmaceuticals. The anticancer and immunostimulating properties of Basidiomycetes result from the structural characteristics of the polysaccharides: the presence of β-(1 → 3) connections in the main chain and an additional β-(1 → 6) branched part of glucans. Attention is focused on Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) as a unique biosystem with a strong ability to be involved in the regulatory mechanism of human immunomodulation. The purpose of the theoretical and experimental study is development of a pharmaceutical preparation from Shiitake biomass (including its immune cells), the effectiveness of which is considered from the standpoint of the chemistry of natural compounds. Having a 3000-year history of cultivation and application, this mushroom is again of interest to scientists around the world because of investigation into its therapeutic and prophylactic potentials. For the first time, the biotechnological method of cultivating L. edodes biomass was developed with the use of deep cultivation, adapted to the plant raw material base of Ukraine. Malt wort was used as a nutrient medium without processing Humulus lupulus. The analysis of research and preclinical studies of specific activity of the designated biosystem showed a steady increase in human immune status, particularly the antitumor status. This gives special relevance to the evaluation of the properties of the designated biosystem in order to further develop the corresponding fungo-therapeutic immunomodulatory and antitumor drug. According to the results of technological research: physico-chemical characteristics of Shiitake biomass dry powder (including crystallographic) were studied; the possibility of its tableting using only antifriction auxiliaries was substantiated; the optimum technology of tablet manufacturing with an operating name "Shitavit" was presented, an integrated approach to its creation was presented, the qualitative and quantitative composition of the drug was experimentally developed. The direct compression method was rejected due to unsatisfactory performance of all samples of tablets. The chosen technology of using preliminary granulation and the possibility of short-term contact of the L. edodes dry powder with a granulation liquid and an adjustable temperature regime allows all the properties of the biologically active substances of the designated raw material to be preserved. The research results for all series of the designated object showed relative stability of parameters for all indicators in laboratory samples. The information presented in this article is a guide to further research, necessary for a better understanding of the healing properties of fungal polysaccharides, increasing the use of broad-spectrum fungi-based preparations,leading to improvement of the quality of human life.