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Hand sanitizers are developed as alcohol-based liquid gel formulations, generally used to decrease the amount of infectious agents on human hands. Verdegen, LLC proposed to prepare an arthropod repellent gel for public use when the recent outbreaks of Zika infection vectored through Aedes mosquitoes in the American continents prompted multi-faceted emergency measures. Four different gel formulations were developed, comprising two of the most efficacious commercial arthropod repellent active ingredients, N,N-diethyl-3-methyl benzamide (deet) and 2-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperidinecarboxylic acid 1-methylpropyl ester (picaridin), each at different concentrations (20 and 33% deet, or 20 and 33% picaridin). Compliance with the use of topical arthropod repellents remains an issue among military personnel. One of the most common complaints by Soldiers is that they do not like how the repellents applied on their skin leave behind an oily or greasy residue. These new gel formulations offer a user-friendly alternative for commonly used arthropod repellents formulations for the military and civilian personnel. We tested the efficacy and protection time of these new gel formulations in comparison with the commercially available cream formulations of deet and picaridin at similar concentrations. Our data show that gel formulations have better topical attributes, and offer equal or better biting protection for up to 48 h against host-seeking Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae) female mosquitoes.

The New World Screwworm fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax, is a major pest of livestock in South America and Caribbean. However, few genomic resources have been available for this species. A genome of 534 Mb was assembled from long read PacBio DNA sequencing of DNA from a highly inbred strain. Analysis of molecular evolution identified 40 genes that are likely under positive selection. Developmental RNA-seq analysis identified specific genes associated with each stage. We identify and analyze the expression of genes that are likely important for host-seeking behavior (chemosensory), development of larvae in open wounds in warm-blooded animals (heat shock protein, immune response) and for building transgenic strains for genetic control programs including gene drive (sex determination, germline). This study will underpin future experiments aimed at understanding the parasitic lifestyle of the screwworm fly and greatly facilitate future development of strains for efficient systems for genetic control of screwworm., Maxwell Scott et al. report the genome of the New World screwworm, a devastating livestock pest in South America and the Caribbean. Using transcriptomic analysis of the insect’s developmental stages combined with genomic analyses, the authors identify genes that may be important for its parasitic lifestyle.

The invasive spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura), is a major pest of soft-skinned fruits. Since its introduction into North America and Europe, significant progress has been made in understanding the volatile cues used by this fly during food, oviposition site, and mate finding. Despite this progress, commercially available lures are non-selective. Here, we tested two Hanseniaspora uvarum (Niehaus) yeast compounds (isoamyl acetate and isobutyl acetate) and a leaf compound β-cyclocitral alone and in combination with a blend of four fermentation compounds (‘Fermentation lure’: acetic acid, ethanol, methionol, and acetoin) to improve D. suzukii attraction and selectivity. In laboratory assays, males and females were attracted to all seven individual compounds, although in electrophysiological assays, their antennae exhibited a dose-dependent response to only four of these compounds. In two-choice cage studies, the Fermentation lure was more attractive to D. suzukii than water controls, whereas β-cyclocitral and the mixture of isoamyl acetate and isobutyl acetate were not attractive in this larger-cage study. Moreover, adding the two-component H. uvarum compound blend to the Fermentation lure reduced D. suzukii attraction to the Fermentation blend. When these experiments were repeated in blueberry, raspberry, blackberry, and cherry orchards across several states in the United States over 2 yr, similar outcomes were observed: β-cyclocitral or the mixture of the H. uvarum blend did not improve the attractiveness of the Fermentation lure or its selectivity. This study demonstrates that cues from different sources may interfere with each other and reduce D. suzukii attraction to otherwise attractive odor combinations.

The screwworm fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel), was successfully eradicated from the United States by the sterile insect technique (SIT). However, recent detection of these flies in the Florida Keys, and increased risk of introductions to the other areas warrant novel tools for management of the flies. Surveillance, a key component of screwworm control programs, utilizes traps baited with rotting liver or a blend of synthetic chemicals such as swormlure-4. In this work, we evaluated the olfactory physiology of the screwworm fly and compared it with the non-obligate ectoparasitic secondary screwworm flies, C. macellaria, that invade necrotic wound and feed on dead tissue. These two species occur in geographically overlapping regions. C. macellaria, along with other blowflies such as the exotic C. megacephala, greatly outnumber C. hominivorax in the existing monitoring traps. Olfactory responses to swormlure-4 constituents between sex and mating status (mated vs unmated) in both species were recorded and compared. Overall, responses measured by the antennograms offered insights into the comparative olfactory physiology of the two fly species. We also present detailed analyses of the antennal transcriptome by RNA-Sequencing that reveal significant differences between male and female screwworm flies. The differential expression patterns were confirmed by quantitative PCR. Taken together, this integrated study provides insights into the physiological and molecular correlates of the screwworm’s attraction to wounds, and identifies molecular targets that will aid in the development of odorant-based fly management strategies.

Phlebotomine sand flies employ an elaborate system of pheromone communication wherein males produce pheromones that attract other males to leks (thus acting as an aggregation pheromone) and females to the lekking males (sex pheromone). In addition, the type of pheromone produced varies among populations. Despite the numerous studies on sand fly chemical communication, little is known of their chemosensory genome. Chemoreceptors interact with chemicals in an organism’s environment to elicit essential behaviors such as the identification of suitable mates and food sources. Thus, they play important roles during adaptation and speciation. Major chemoreceptor gene families, odorant receptors (ORs), gustatory receptors (GRs) and ionotropic receptors (IRs) together detect and discriminate the chemical landscape. Here, we annotated the chemoreceptor repertoire in the genomes of Lutzomyia longipalpis and Phlebotomus papatasi, major phlebotomine vectors in the New World and Old World, respectively. Comparison with other sequenced Diptera revealed a large and unique expansion where over 80% of the ~140 ORs belong to a single, taxonomically restricted clade. We next conducted a comprehensive analysis of the chemoreceptors in 63 L. longipalpis individuals from four different locations in Brazil representing allopatric and sympatric populations and three sex-aggregation pheromone types (chemotypes). Population structure based on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and gene copy number in the chemoreceptors corresponded with their putative chemotypes, and corroborate previous studies that identified multiple populations. Our work provides genomic insights into the underlying behavioral evolution of sexual communication in the L. longipalpis species complex in Brazil, and highlights the importance of accounting for the ongoing speciation in central and South American Lutzomyia that could have important implications for vectorial capacity., Author summary Phlebotomine sand flies are the primary vectors of Leishmania parasites, the causative agents of cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis. Due to the lack of vaccines, control of leishmaniasis relies upon reducing human exposure to sand flies. Sand flies produce sex-aggregation pheromones that elicit robust olfactory behaviors, and the molecular targets for pheromone detection remain unknown. We identified chemoreceptors in the genomes of L. longipalpis and P. papatasi, and used these gene models to explore chemoreceptor evolution in 63 L. longipalpis individuals representing different pheromone types. These analyses identified genomic loci underlying chemosensory behavior in sand flies. This paves the way for understanding the sand fly species diversity at the molecular level, and functional characterization of these candidate genes will isolate and identify chemostimuli that can directly be tested as potential attractants for odor-baited traps.

Background As well-known, the gut microbiota is associated with many human complex diseases. The change of microbiota community is observed in diseased individuals. However, the disorder of gut microbiota during disease occurrence is still unclear, and especially the pre-disease or early-disease signal on individual gut microbiota requires systematical researches. Methods Different from conventional studies on the differential average abundance of gut microbiota between normal and diseased samples, we investigate the variance of the abundance of gut microbiota on consecutive samples from a healthy state to pathogen state for each individual person because the change of microbiota abundance variance would be a critical signal of the biological dynamical system. Edge-network analysis (ENA) is our proposed newly computational approach to analyse the network of associations rather than the network of base variables; especially it can consider the change of variance and covariance simultaneously. Thus we used ENA to integratively analyse the metagenomics data of total 15 individuals from three cohorts in public domain, and each person in the cohorts would have multiple faeces samples for more than one year. Results Six individuals keep healthy, and six individuals occur seroconversion, and three individuals occur seroconversion along with final Type 1 Diabetes. Focused on the seroconversion, a key stage to T1D, the conventional analysis found some microbiota with changed abundance after the occurrence of seroconversion (figure 1a). Meanwhile, our analysis further show that a lot of microbiota actually have great abundance variance change before seroconversion (figure 1b), which can even be efficient features to classify the healthy and seroconversion individuals with about 80% accuracy (figure 1c). More importantly, this microbiota with critical abundance variance as key species is also associated with T1D clinical antibody or even some new (figure 1d). Conclusions Dissimilar to common biomarkers like a clinical antibody, the individual specific signatures, e.g. variance of gut microbiota abundance, would be an alternative approach for personalised pre-disease or early-disease diagnosis.

The blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis (Ixodida, Ixodidae), is one of the major disease vectors in the United States, and due to multiple human impact factors, such as decreasing forest size for land development and climate change, it has expanded its range and established across the United States. Throughout the life cycle, ticks locate hosts for their blood-meal, and although the ecologies of this tick and their hosts have been studied in depth, the sensory physiology behind host location largely remains unexplored. Here, we report establishing a robust paradigm to isolate and identify odors from the natural milieu for I. scapularis. We performed single sensillum recordings (SSR) from the olfactory sensilla on the tick tarsi, and used the SSR system as a biological detector to isolate natural compounds that elicited biological activity. The SSR setup was further tested in tandem with gas chromatography (GC) wherein the ticks’ olfactory sensillum activity served as a biological detector. The GC-SSR recordings from the wall pore sensilla in the Haller’s organ, and further identification of the biologically active deer gland constituents by GC-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) revealed methyl substituted phenols as strong chemostimuli, as compared to ethyl or propyl substitutions. The strongest electrophysiological activity was elicited by m- cresol followed by p- cresol. Ethyl- and propylphenols with any of the three substitutions (ortho, meta or para), did not induce any neurophysiological activity. Finally, a behavioral analysis in a dual-choice olfactometer of all these phenols at three different doses revealed no significant behavioral response, except for p- cresol at −3 dilution. Overall, this study contributes to our understanding of I. scapularis tick’s neurophysiology and provides a robust platform to isolate and identify natural attractants and repellents.

Three different pheromone binding proteins (PBPs) can typically be found in the sensilla lymph of noctuid moth antennae, but their relative contributions in perception of the sex pheromone is rarely verified in vivo. Previously, we demonstrated that SlitPBP3 plays a minor role in the sex pheromone detection in Spodoptera litura using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. In the present study, the roles of two other SlitPBPs (SlitPBP1 and SlitPBP2 ) are further verified using the same system. First, by co-injection of Cas9 mRNA/sgRNA into newly laid eggs, a high rate of target mutagenesis was induced, 51.5% for SlitPBP1 and 46.8% for SlitPBP2 as determined by restriction enzyme assay. Then, the homozygous SlitPBP1 and SlitPBP2 knockout lines were obtained by cross-breeding. Finally, using homozygous knockout male moths, we performed electrophysiological (EAG recording) and behavioral analyses. Results showed that knockout of either SlitPBP1 or SlitPBP2 in males decreased EAG response to each of the 3 sex pheromone components (Z9,E11-14:Ac, Z9,E12-14:Ac and Z9-14:Ac) by 53%, 60% and 63% (for SlitPBP1 knockout) and 40%, 43% and 46% (for SlitPBP2 knockout), respectively. These decreases in EAG responses were similar among 3 pheromone components, but were more pronounced in SlitPBP1 knockout males than in SlitPBP2 knockout males. Consistently, behavioral assays with the major component (Z9,E11-14:Ac) showed that SlitPBP1 knockout males responded in much lower percentages than SlitPBP2 knockout males in terms of orientation to the pheromone, along with reduction in close range behaviors such as hairpencil display and mating attempt. Taken together, this study provides direct functional evidence for the roles of SlitPBP1 and SlitPBP2, as well as their relative importance (SlitPBP1 > SlitPBP2) in the sex pheromone perception. This information is valuable in understanding mechanisms of sex pheromone perception and may facilitate the development of PBP-targeted pest control techniques.

Significant progress has been made in understanding the cues involved in the host and mate seeking behaviors of spotted wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii (Matsumura). This insect pest has been discovered in many fruit growing regions around the world since 2008. Unlike closely related Drosophila species, D. suzukii attacks fresh fruit and has become a severe pest of soft fruits including strawberry, cherry, blackberry, blueberry, raspberry, and may pose a threat to grapes. Prior to 2008, little was known about the courtship and host-seeking behaviors or chemical ecology of this pest. Since then, researchers have gained a better understanding of D. suzukii attraction to specific odors from fermentation, yeast, fruit, and leaf sources, and the visual cues that elicit long-range attraction. Several compounds have also been identified that elicit aversive behaviors in adult D. suzukii flies. Progress has been made in identifying the constituent compounds from these odor sources that elicit D. suzukii antennal responses in electrophysiological assays. Commercial lures based on food volatiles have been developed to attract D. suzukii using these components and efforts have been made to improve trap designs for monitoring this pest under field conditions. However, current food-based lures and trap technologies are not expected to be specific to D. suzukii and thus capture large numbers of non-target drosophilids. Attractive and aversive compounds are being evaluated for monitoring, mass trapping, and for the development of attract-and-kill and push-pull techniques to manage D. suzukii populations. This review outlines presently available research on the chemical ecology of D. suzukii and discusses areas for future research.

Hematophagous arthropods (ticks and insects, collectively hereafter referred to as vectors) transmit various life threatening diseases resulting in over one million human deaths annually. Exploiting vertebrates for blood demanded extensive sensory and behavioral adaptations that are apparent across the evolutionary range of vector species, from primitive ticks to advanced dipterans. Since animal senses are biological features that have been shaped by natural selection to promote adaptive behavior, a variety of exciting patterns are apparent in what they sense and how. Vectors display robust olfactory driven behaviors. A distinct yet limited range of volatile organic compounds are parsimoniously used as major cues for tracking in various contexts. These chemicals elicit behaviors such as attraction or repulsion/avoidance while vectors seek habitats, hosts, mates, or oviposition sites. Interestingly, there is a substantial consilience among olfactory structures and function in arthropod vectors, which is also reflected in the parsimonious use of chemical ligands. A detailed analysis of chemosensory signals and reception by these arthropod vectors can be exploited to identify natural ligands that can be used as baits to manipulate vector behaviors.

Mosquitoes in the Culex pipiens complex (Diptera: Culicidae), especially Cx. pipiens and Culex quinquefasciatus, have successfully exploited the rapid growth of the human population and globalization to their advantage by successfully utilizing man-made habitats, particularly for oviposition. Culex spp. lay over 100 eggs together in a raft. Each egg in the raft produces an apical droplet containing an oviposition attractant, erythro-6-acetoxy-5-hexadecanolide, commonly referred to as Mosquito Oviposition Pheromone (MOP). Here we present a detailed gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis of the apical droplets from six populations that revealed MOP as the most abundant constituent. Subjecting MOP and the remaining 17 most abundant chemical constituents of the droplets from these populations to a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) resolved the populations into two distinct clusters that contained two populations each of Cx. quinquefasciatus and Culex pipiens molestus. The two Culex pipiens pipiens, however, did not resolve into a single cluster, with the Shasta population sorting closer to Cx. quinquefasciatus. Comparing the PCA scores with the genetic evidence from adult females using available molecular markers that have earlier shown to sort various Culex forms, we found that the molecular data support the PCA clustering pattern. Behavioral investigation of the droplet-induced attraction tested in gravid Cx. quinquefasciatus elicited various degrees of oviposition to the droplets from each population. Overall, droplets from all six populations induced higher attraction compared to controls. A detailed time-course analysis of droplet composition in Cx. quinquefasciatus from 6 to 54 h post egg-laying identified MOP again as the main constituent. Finally, our electrophysiological investigation identified MOP as the only biologically active constituent from of the droplets eliciting responses from female antennae. These studies will aid in global efforts to understand the vector biology and evolution that can be exploited to develop novel vector management strategies.

General odorant-binding proteins (GOBPs) of moths are postulated to be involved in the reception of semiochemicals other than sex pheromones, the so-called “general odorants.” We have expressed two GOBPs, AtraGOBP1 and AtraGOBP2, which were previously isolated from the antennae of the navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella. Surprisingly, these two proteins did not bind compounds that are known to attract adult moths, particularly females. The proper folding and functionality of the recombinant proteins was inferred from circular dichroism analysis and demonstration that both GOBPs bound nonanal in a pH-dependent manner. EAG experiments demonstrated that female attractants (1-phenylethanol, propionic acid phenyl ester, and isobutyric acid phenyl ester) are detected with high sensitivity by the antennae of day-0 to day-4 adult females, with response declining in older moths. The same age-dependence was shown for male antennae responding to constituents of the sex pheromone. Interestingly, AtraGOBP2 bound the major constituent of the sex pheromone, Z11Z13-16Ald, with affinity comparable to that shown by a pheromone-binding protein, AtraPBP1. The related alcohol bound to AtraPBP1 with higher affinity than to AtraGOBP2. AtraGOBP1 bound both ligands with low but nearly the same affinity.

Male moths are endowed with odorant receptors (ORs) to detect species-specific sex pheromones with remarkable sensitivity and selectivity. We serendipitously discovered that an endogenous OR in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster , is highly sensitive to the sex pheromone of the silkworm moth, bombykol. Intriguingly, the fruit fly detectors are more sensitive than the receptors of the silkworm moth, although its ecological significance is unknown. By expression in the “empty neuron” system, we identified the fruit fly bombykol-sensitive OR as DmelOR7a (= DmOR7a). The profiles of this receptor in response to bombykol in the native sensilla (ab4) or expressed in the empty neuron system (ab3 sensilla) are indistinguishable. Both WT and transgenic flies responded with high sensitivity, in a dose-dependent manner, and with rapid signal termination. In contrast, the same empty neuron expressing the moth bombykol receptor, BmorOR1, demonstrated low sensitivity and slow signal inactivation. When expressed in the trichoid sensilla T1 of the fruit fly, the neuron housing BmorOR1 responded with sensitivity comparable to that of the native trichoid sensilla in the silkworm moth. By challenging the native bombykol receptor in the fruit fly with high doses of another odorant to which the receptor responds with the highest sensitivity, we demonstrate that slow signal termination is induced by overdose of a stimulus. As opposed to the empty neuron system in the basiconic sensilla, the structural, biochemical, and/or biophysical features of the sensilla make the T1 trichoid system of the fly a better surrogate for the moth receptor.

Odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) were discovered almost three decades ago, but there is still considerable debate regarding their role(s) in insect olfaction, particularly due to our inability to knockdown OBPs and demonstrate their direct phenotypic effects. By using RNA interference (RNAi), we reduced transcription of a major OBP gene, CquiOBP1, in the antennae of the Southern house mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus. Previously, we had demonstrated that the mosquito oviposition pheromone (MOP) binds to CquiOBP1, which is expressed in MOP-sensitive sensilla. Antennae of RNAi-treated mosquitoes showed significantly lower electrophysiological responses to known mosquito oviposition attractants than the antennae of water-injected, control mosquitoes. While electroantennogram (EAG) responses to MOP, skatole, and indole were reduced in the knockdowns, there was no significant difference in the EAG responses from RNAi-treated and water-injected mosquito antennae to nonanal at all doses tested. These data suggest that CquiOBP1 is involved in the reception of some oviposition attractants, and that high levels of OBPs expression are essential for the sensitivity of the insect’s olfactory system.

Half lives of a range of Lepidopteran sex pheromone components incorporated into plasticized polyvinylchloride (PVC)-resin formulations were determined under a range of conditions in a laboratory wind tunnel and in the field in Egypt, Pakistan and India. Increasing aliphatic chain length by two methylene groups increased half lives by a factor of approximately 7.5 at 27 °C. Half lives of saturated aliphatic acetates decreased with increase in temperature by 79.2%, 85.5% and 95% for dodecyl acetate, tetradecyl acetate and hexadecyl acetate, respectively, between 22 and 34 °C. Addition of the polymer-soluble dye, Waxoline Black, improved the stability of labile aldehydes and polyunsaturated compounds incorporated into plasticized PVC under field conditions, although the antioxidant BHT had no effect. Studies confirmed that the formulation was ideally suited for the release of 14-carbon acetates and 16-carbon aldehydes with typical field lives of 70–100 days. A PVC-resin formulation of sex pheromone was tested for mating disruption of yellow rice stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas, in replicated 1 ha plots in India over two seasons. Even at an application rate of 10 g a.i./ha/season there was a significant reduction in damage relative to that in plots treated with insecticides. However, application rates of 30–40 g a.i./ha/season are recommended for general use by farmers.

A single type of olfactory sensilla on maxillary palps in many species of mosquitoes houses a very sensitive olfactory receptor neuron (ORN) for carbon dioxide reception. We performed extensive single sensillum recordings from this peg sensillum in Culex quinquefasciatus and have characterized the response threshold and kinetics for CO(2) reception, with a detection threshold less than the CO(2) concentration in the atmosphere. This ORN responded in a tonic mode to lower concentrations of CO(2), whereas higher concentrations generated a phasic-tonic mode of action potential firing. Sensillum potentials accurately represented the response magnitude and kinetics of carbon dioxide-elicited excitatory responses. Stimulation of these ORNs with human breath, a complex mixture of mosquito kairomones and up to 4.5% CO(2), elicited excitatory responses that were reliably detected by CO(2)-sensitive ORNs. Another ORN housed in these sensilla responded to 1-octen-3-ol and to various plant-derived compounds, particularly floral and green leaf volatiles. This ORN showed remarkable sensitivity to the natural enantiomer, (R)-(-)-1-octen-3-ol, rivaling pheromone-detecting ORNs in moths. Maximum neuronal response was elicited with a 10 ng dose. A biological, ecological role of maxillary palps in detection of plant- and nectar-related sources is proposed.

The development of sex-specific traits, including the female-specific ability to bite humans and vector disease, is critical for vector mosquito reproduction and pathogen transmission. Doublesex (Dsx), a terminal transcription factor in the sex determination pathway, is known to regulate sex-specific gene expression during development of the dengue fever vector mosquito Aedes aegypti. Here, the effects of developmental siRNA-mediated dsx silencing were assessed in adult females. Targeting of dsx during A. aegypti development resulted in decreased female wing size, a correlate for body size, which is typically larger in females. siRNA-mediated targeting of dsx also resulted in decreased length of the adult female proboscis. Although dsx silencing did not impact female membrane blood feeding or mating behavior in the laboratory, decreased fecundity and fertility correlated with decreased ovary length, ovariole length, and ovariole number in dsx knockdown females. Dsx silencing also resulted in disruption of olfactory system development, as evidenced by reduced length of the female antenna and maxillary palp and the sensilla present on these structures, as well as disrupted odorant receptor expression. Female lifespan, a critical component of the ability of A. aegypti to transmit pathogens, was also significantly reduced in adult females following developmental targeting of dsx. The results of this investigation demonstrate that silencing of dsx during A. aegypti development disrupts multiple sex-specific morphological, physiological, and behavioral traits of adult females, a number of which are directly or indirectly linked to mosquito reproduction and pathogen transmission. Moreover, the olfactory phenotypes observed connect Dsx to development of the olfactory system, suggesting that A. aegypti will be an excellent system in which to further assess the developmental genetics of sex-specific chemosensation., Author Summary Only adult female mosquitoes, which require blood meals for reproduction, bite humans and spread diseases. The genes that regulate development of sex-specific traits may therefore represent novel targets for mosquito control. Here, we examine the effects of silencing the sex-determination gene doublesex (dsx) during development of the human disease vector mosquito Aedes aegypti. Targeting of dsx resulted in decreased length of the female wing and proboscis, ovary and reproductive defects, and disruption of olfactory system development. Female lifespan, a critical aspect of mosquito pathogen transmission, was also significantly reduced in adult females following developmental targeting of dsx. The results of this investigation demonstrate that silencing of dsx during A. aegypti development disrupts multiple sex-specific morphological, physiological, and behavioral traits of adult females, a number of which are directly or indirectly linked to mosquito reproduction and pathogen transmission. The results obtained also connect Dsx to development of the mosquito olfactory system, suggesting that A. aegypti will be an excellent system in which to further assess the developmental genetics of sex-specific chemosensation.

Drosophila have evolved strong mutualistic associations with yeast communities that best support their growth and survival, resulting in the development of novel niches. It has been suggested that flies recognize their cognate yeasts primarily based on the rich repertoire of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) derived from the yeasts. Thus, it remained an exciting avenue to study whether fly spp. detect and discriminate yeast strains based on odor alone and if so, how such resolution is achieved by the olfactory system in flies. We used two fly species known to exploit different niches and harboring different yeasts, D. suzukii (a pest of fresh fruit) and D. melanogaster (a saprophytic fly and a neurogenetic model organism). We initially established the behavioral preference of both fly species to six Drosophila-associated yeasts; then chemically analyzed the VOC profile of each yeast which revealed quantitative and qualitative differences; and finally isolated and identified the physiologically active constituents from yeast VOCs for each drosophilid that potentially define attraction. By employing chemical, behavioral and electrophysiological analyses, we provide a comprehensive portrait of the olfactory neuroethological correlates underlying fly-yeast coadaptation in two drosophilids with distinct habitats.

Understanding how odors are coded within an olfactory system requires knowledge about its input. This is constituted by the molecular receptive ranges (MRR) of olfactory sensory neurons that converge in the glomeruli of the olfactory bulb (vertebrates) or the antennal lobe (AL, insects). Aiming at a comprehensive characterization of MRRs in Drosophila melanogaster we measured odor-evoked calcium responses in olfactory sensory neurons that express the olfactory receptor Or22a. We used an automated stimulus application system to screen [Ca(2+)] responses to 104 odors both in the antenna (sensory transduction) and in the AL (neuronal transmission). At 10(-2) (vol/vol) dilution, 39 odors elicited at least a half-maximal response. For these odorants we established dose-response relationships over their entire dynamic range. We tested 15 additional chemicals that are structurally related to the most efficient odors. Ethyl hexanoate and methyl hexanoate were the best stimuli, eliciting consistent responses at dilutions as low as 10(-9). Two substances led to calcium decrease, suggesting that Or22a might be constitutively active, and that these substances might act as inverse agonists, reminiscent of G-protein coupled receptors. There was no difference between the antennal and the AL MRR. Furthermore we show that Or22a has a broad yet selective MRR, and must be functionally described both as a specialist and a generalist. Both these descriptions are ecologically relevant. Given that adult Drosophila use approximately 43 ORs, a complete description of all MRRs appears now in reach.

In tsetse both sexes feed exclusively on the blood of vertebrates for a few minutes every 2-3 days. Tsetse flies seek cover from high temperatures to conserve energy and plants provide shelter for tsetse in all the biotopes they occupy. Recently, tsetse have taken cover in plantations and under the invasive bush Lantana camara that has invaded large areas of the tsetse fly belt of Africa. Flies from such refugia are implicated in sleeping sickness epidemics. In a wind tunnel we show that both foliage and an extract of volatiles from foliage of L. camara attract three tsetse spp. from different habitats: Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (riverine), G. brevipalpis (sylvatic) and G. pallidipes (savannah). Gas chromatography analysis of volatiles extracted from leaves and flowers of L. camara coupled to electroantennograme recordings show that 1-octen-3-ol and beta-caryophyllene are the major chemostimuli for the antennal receptor cells of the three tsetse spp. studied. A binary mixture of these products attracted these flies in the wind tunnel. The gas chromatography linked electroantennograme analysis of the L. camara extracts also show that the antennal receptor cells of the three tsetse spp. respond similarly to groups of volatiles derived from the major biosynthetic and catabolic pathways of plants, i.e. to mono- and sesquiterpenes, to lipoxidation products and to aromatics. Mixtures of these plant volatiles also attracted tsetse in the wind tunnel. These findings show that tsetse flies have conserved a strong sensitivity to volatile secondary products of plants, underlining the fundamental role of vegetation in tsetse survival.

In a previous study, the Drosophila melanogaster OR67d(GAL4);UAS system was used to functionally characterize the receptor for the major component of the sex pheromone in the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), HvOR13. Electrophysiological and behavioral assays showed that transgenic flies expressing HvOR13 responded to (Z)-11-hexadecenal (Z11-16:Ald). However, tests were not performed to determine whether these flies would also respond to secondary components of the H. virescens sex pheromone. Thus, in this study the response spectrum of HvOR13 expressed in this system was examined by performing single cell recordings from odor receptor neuron in trichoid T1 sensilla on antennae of two Or67d(GAL4 [1]); UAS-HvOR13 lines stimulated with Z11-16:Ald and six H. virescens secondary pheromone components. Fly courtship assays were also performed to examine the behavioral response of the Or67d(GAL4[1]); UAS-HvOR13 flies to Z11-16:Ald and the secondary component Z9-14:Ald. Our combined electrophysiological and behavioral studies indicated high specificity and sensitivity of HvOR13 to Z11-16:Ald. Interestingly, a mutation leading to truncation in the HvOR13 C-terminal region affected but did not abolish pheromone receptor response to Z11-16:Ald. The findings are assessed in relationship to other HvOR13 heterologous expression studies, and the role of the C-terminal domain in receptor function is discussed. A third line expressing HvOR15 was also tested but did not respond to any of the seven pheromone components.

Background Principal malaria vectors in Africa, An. gambiae and An. coluzzii, share an inversion polymorphism on the left arm of chromosome 2 (2La/2L+a) that is distributed non-randomly in the environment. Genomic sequencing studies support the role of strong natural selection in maintaining steep clines in 2La inversion frequency along environmental gradients of aridity, and physiological studies have directly implicated 2La in heat and desiccation tolerance, but the precise genetic basis and the underlying behavioral and physiological mechanisms remain unknown. As the insect cuticle is the primary barrier to water loss, differences in cuticle thickness and/or epicuticular waterproofing associated with alternative 2La arrangements might help explain differences in desiccation resistance. Methods To test that hypothesis, two subcolonies of both An. gambiae and An. coluzzii were established that were fixed for alternative 2La arrangements (2La or 2L+a) on an otherwise homosequential and shared genetic background. Adult mosquitoes reared under controlled environmental conditions (benign or arid) for eight days post-eclosion were collected and analyzed. Measurements of cuticle thickness were made based on scanning electron microscopy, and cuticular hydrocarbon (CHC) composition was evaluated by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Results After removing the allometric effects of body weight, differences in mean cuticle thickness were found between alternative 2La karyotypes, but not between alternative environments. Moreover, the thicker cuticle of the An. coluzzii 2La karyotype was contrary to the known higher rate of water loss of this karyotype relative to 2L+a. On the other hand, quantitative differences in individual CHCs and overall CHC profiles between alternative karyotypes and environmental conditions were consistent with expectation based on previous physiological studies. Conclusions Our results suggest that alternative arrangements of the 2La inversion are associated with differences in cuticle thickness and CHC composition, but that only CHC composition appears to be relevant for desiccation resistance. Differences in the CHC composition were consistent with previous findings of a lower rate of water loss for the 2L+a karyotype at eight days post-eclosion, suggesting that CHC composition is an important strategy for maintaining water balance in this genetic background, but not for 2La. Despite a higher rate of water loss at eight days, higher body water content of the 2La karyotype confers a level of desiccation resistance equivalent to that of the 2L+a karyotype.

We recently characterized 24-hr daily rhythmic patterns of gene expression in Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. These include numerous odorant binding proteins (OBPs), soluble odorant carrying proteins enriched in olfactory organs. Here we demonstrate that multiple rhythmically expressed genes including OBPs and takeout proteins, involved in regulating blood feeding behavior, have corresponding rhythmic protein levels as measured by quantitative proteomics. This includes AgamOBP1, previously shown as important to An. gambiae odorant sensing. Further, electrophysiological investigations demonstrate time-of-day specific differences in olfactory sensitivity of antennae to major host-derived odorants. The pre-dusk/dusk peaks in OBPs and takeout gene expression correspond with peak protein abundance at night and in turn coincide with the time of increased olfactory sensitivity to odorants requiring OBPs and times of increased blood-feeding behavior. This suggests an important role for OBPs in modulating temporal changes in odorant sensitivity, enabling the olfactory system to coordinate with the circadian niche of An. gambiae.

The insect's olfactory system is so selective that male moths, for example, can discriminate female-produced sex pheromones from compounds with minimal structural modifications. Yet, there is an exception for this "lock-and-key" tight selectivity. Formate analogs can be used as replacement for less chemically stable, long-chain aldehyde pheromones, because male moths respond physiologically and behaviorally to these parapheromones. However, it remained hitherto unknown how formate analogs interact with aldehyde-sensitive odorant receptors (ORs). Neuronal responses to semiochemicals were investigated with single sensillum recordings. Odorant receptors (ORs) were cloned using degenerate primers, and tested with the Xenopus oocyte expression system. Quality, relative quantity, and purity of samples were evaluated by gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. We identified olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) housed in trichoid sensilla on the antennae of male navel orangeworm that responded equally to the main constituent of the sex pheromone, (11Z,13Z)-hexadecadienal (Z11Z13-16Ald), and its formate analog, (9Z,11Z)-tetradecen-1-yl formate (Z9Z11-14OFor). We cloned an odorant receptor co-receptor (Orco) and aldehyde-sensitive ORs from the navel orangeworm, one of which (AtraOR1) was expressed specifically in male antennae. AtraOR1•AtraOrco-expressing oocytes responded mainly to Z11Z13-16Ald, with moderate sensitivity to another component of the sex pheromone, (11Z,13Z)-hexadecadien-1-ol. Surprisingly, this receptor was more sensitive to the related formate than to the natural sex pheromone. A pheromone receptor from Heliothis virescens, HR13 ( = HvirOR13) showed a similar profile, with stronger responses elicited by a formate analog than to the natural sex pheromone, (11Z)-hexadecenal thus suggesting this might be a common feature of moth pheromone receptors.

Insect olfactory systems provide unique opportunities for recording odorant-induced responses in the forms of electroantennograms (EAG) and single sensillum recordings (SSR), which are summed responses from all odorant receptor neurons (ORNs) located on the antenna and from those housed in individual sensilla, respectively. These approaches have been exploited for getting a better understanding of insect chemical communication. The identified stimuli can then be used as either attractants or repellents in management strategies for insect pests.

Background: Insect repellents are prophylactic tools against a number of vector-borne diseases. There is growing demand for repellents outperforming DEET in cost and safety, but with the current technologies R&D of a new product takes almost 10 years, with a prohibitive cost of $30 million dollar in part due to the demand for large-scale synthesis of thousands of test compounds of which only 1 may reach the market. R&D could be expedited and cost dramatically reduced with a molecular/physiological target to streamline putative repellents for final efficacy and toxicological tests. Methodology: Using olfactory-based choice assay we show here that the fruit fly is repelled by not only DEET, but also IR3535 and picaridin thus suggesting they might have ‘‘generic repellent detector(s),’’ which may be of practical applications in new repellent screenings. We performed single unit recordings from all olfactory sensilla in the antennae and maxillary palps. Although the ab3A neuron in the wild type flies responded to picaridin, it was unresponsive to DEET and IR3535. By contrast, a neuron housed in the palp basiconic sensilla pb1 responded to DEET, IR3535, and picaridin, with apparent sensitivity higher than that of the DEET detectors in the mosquitoes Culex quinquefasciatus and Aedes aegypti. DmOr42a was transplanted from pb1 to the ‘‘empty neuron’’ and showed to be sensitive to the three insect repellents. Conclusions: For the first time we have demonstrated that the fruit fly avoids not only DEET but also IR3535 and picaridin, and identified an olfactory receptor neuron (ORN), which is sensitive to these three major insect repellents. We have also identified the insect repellent-sensitive receptor, DmOr42a. This generic detector fulfils the requirements for a simplified bioassay for early screening of test insect repellents.

West Nile virus, which is transmitted by Culex mosquitoes while feeding on birds and humans, has emerged as the dominant vector borne disease in North America. We have identified natural compounds from humans and birds, which are detected with extreme sensitivity by olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) on the antennae of Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus ( Cx. quinquefasciatus ). One of these semiochemicals, nonanal, dominates the odorant spectrum of pigeons, chickens, and humans from various ethnic backgrounds. We determined the specificity and sensitivity of all ORN types housed in different sensilla types on Cx. quinquefasciatus antennae. Here, we present a comprehensive map of all antennal ORNs coding natural ligands and their dose-response functions. Nonanal is detected by a large array of sensilla and is by far the most potent stimulus; thus, supporting the assumption that Cx. quinquefasciatus can smell humans and birds. Nonanal and CO 2 synergize, thus, leading to significantly higher catches of Culex mosquitoes in traps baited with binary than in those with individual lures.

Synthetic mosquito oviposition attractants are sorely needed for surveillance and control programs for Culex species, which are major vectors of pathogens causing various human diseases, including filariasis, encephalitis, and West Nile encephalomyelitis. We employed novel and conventional chemical ecology approaches to identify potential attractants, which were demonstrated in field tests to be effective for monitoring populations of Cx. p. quinquefasciatus in human dwellings. Immunohistochemistry studies showed that an odorant-binding protein from this species, CquiOBP1, is expressed in trichoid sensilla on the antennae, including short, sharp-tipped trichoid sensilla type, which house an olfactory receptor neuron sensitive to a previously identified mosquito oviposition pheromone (MOP), 6-acetoxy-5-hexadecanolide. CquiOBP1 exists in monomeric and dimeric forms. Monomeric CquiOBP1 bound MOP in a pH-dependent manner, with a change in secondary structure apparently related to the loss of binding at low pH. The pheromone antipode showed higher affinity than the natural stereoisomer. By using both CquiOBP1 as a molecular target in binding assays and gas chromatography-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD), we identified nonanal, trimethylamine (TMA), and skatole as test compounds. Extensive field evaluations in Recife, Brazil, a region with high populations of Cx. p. quinquefasciatus, showed that a combination of TMA (0.9 microg/l) and nonanal (0.15 ng/microl) is equivalent in attraction to the currently used infusion-based lure, and superior in that the offensive smell of infusions was eliminated in the newly developed synthetic mixture.

The insect repellent DEET is effective against a variety of medically important pests, but its mode of action still draws considerable debate. The widely accepted hypothesis that DEET interferes with the detection of lactic acid has been challenged by demonstrated DEET-induced repellency in the absence of lactic acid. The most recent hypothesis suggests that DEET masks or jams the olfactory system by attenuating electrophysiological responses to 1-octen-3-ol. Our research shows that mosquitoes smell DEET directly and avoid it. We performed single-unit recordings from all functional ORNs on the antenna and maxillary palps of Culex quinquefasciatus and found an ORN in a short trichoid sensillum responding to DEET in a dose-dependent manner. The same ORN responded with higher sensitivity to terpenoid compounds. SPME and GC analysis showed that odorants were trapped in conventional stimulus cartridges upon addition of a DEET-impregnated filter paper strip thus leading to the observed reduced electrophysiological responses, as reported elsewhere. With a new stimulus delivery method releasing equal amounts of 1-octen-3-ol alone or in combination with DEET we found no difference in neuronal responses. When applied to human skin, DEET altered the chemical profile of emanations by a “fixative” effect that may also contribute to repellency. However, the main mode of action is the direct detection of DEET as indicated by the evidence that mosquitoes are endowed with DEET-detecting ORNs and corroborated by behavioral bioassays. In a sugar-feeding assay, both female and male mosquitoes avoided DEET. In addition, mosquitoes responding only to physical stimuli avoided DEET.

We have expressed a male-specific, pheromone-sensitive odorant receptor (OR), BmorOR1 , from the silkworm moth Bombyx mori in an “empty neuron” housed in the ab3 sensilla of a Drosophila Δ halo mutant. Single-sensillum recordings showed that the BmorOR1 -expressing neurons in the transgenic flies responded to the B. mori pheromone bombykol, albeit with low sensitivity. These transgenic flies responded to lower doses of bombykol in an altered stimulation method with direct delivery of pheromone into the sensillum milieu. We also expressed a B. mori pheromone-binding protein, BmorPBP , in the BmorOR1 -expressing ab3 sensilla. Despite the low levels of BmorPBP expression, flies carrying both BmorOR1 and BmorPBP showed significantly higher electrophysiological responses than BmorOR1 flies. Both types of BmorOR1 -expressing flies responded to bombykol, and to a lesser extent to a second compound, bombykal, even without the addition of organic solvents to the recording electrode buffer. When the semiochemicals were delivered by the conventional puffing of stimulus on the antennae, the receptor responded to bombykol but not to bombykal. The onset of response was remarkably slow, and neural activity extended for an unusually long time (>1 min) after the end of stimulus delivery. We hypothesize that BmorOR1 -expressing ab3 sensilla lack a pheromone-degrading enzyme to rapidly inactivate bombykol and terminate the signal. We also found an endogenous receptor in one of the sensillum types on Drosophila antenna that responds to bombykol and bombykal with sensitivity comparable to the pheromone-detecting sensilla on B. mori male antennae.

Infectious diseases affecting livestock and human health that involve vector-borne pathogens are a global problem, unrestricted by borders or boundaries, which may be exacerbated by changing global climate. Thus, the availability of effective tools for control of pathogen vectors is of the utmost importance. The aim of this article is to review, selectively, current knowledge of the chemical ecology of pathogen vectors that affect livestock and human health in the developed and developing world, based on key note lectures presented in a symposium on "The Chemical Ecology of Disease Vectors" at the 25th Annual ISCE meeting in Neuchatel, Switzerland. The focus is on the deployment of semiochemicals for monitoring and control strategies, and discusses briefly future directions that such research should proceed along, bearing in mind the environmental challenges associated with climate change that we will face during the 21st century.

Background Drosophila suzukii differs from other melanogaster group members in their proclivity for laying eggs in fresh fruit rather than in fermenting fruits. Olfaction and gustation play a critical role during insect niche formation, and these senses are largely mediated by two important receptor families: olfactory and gustatory receptors (Ors and Grs). Earlier work from our laboratory has revealed how the olfactory landscape of D. suzukii is dominated by volatiles derived from its unique niche. Signaling and reception evolve in synchrony, since the interaction of ligands and receptors together mediate the chemosensory behavior. Here, we manually annotated the Ors and Grs in D. suzukii and two close relatives, D. biarmipes and D. takahashii, and compared these repertoires to those in other melanogaster group drosophilids to identify candidate chemoreceptors associated with D. suzukii’s unusual niche utilization. Results Our comprehensive annotations of the chemosensory genomes in three species, and comparative analysis with other melanogaster group members provide insights into the evolution of chemosensation in the pestiferous D. suzukii. We annotated a total of 71 Or genes in D. suzukii, with nine of those being pseudogenes (12.7 %). Alternative splicing of two genes brings the total to 62 genes encoding 66 Ors. Duplications of Or23a and Or67a expanded D. suzukii’s Or repertoire, while pseudogenization of Or74a, Or85a, and Or98b reduced the number of functional Ors to roughly the same as other annotated species in the melanogaster group. Seventy-one intact Gr genes and three pseudogenes were annotated in D. suzukii. Alternative splicing in three genes brings the total number of Grs to 81. We identified signatures of positive selection in two Ors and three Grs at nodes leading to D. suzukii, while three copies in the largest expanded Or lineage, Or67a, also showed signs of positive selection at the external nodes. Conclusion Our analysis of D. suzukii’s chemoreceptor repertoires in the context of nine melanogaster group drosophilids, including two of its closest relatives (D. biarmipes and D. takahashii), revealed several candidate receptors associated with the adaptation of D. suzukii to its unique ecological niche. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2983-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.