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In recent times, the use of natural and harmless products for the environment and restorer is taking place in the field of Cultural Heritage restoration. In this sense, wheat, rice and corn starches as adhesives, have suitable characteristics without toxicity risks. A new starch in this field, is the Kudzu, an almost pure compound (99.5% starch) that is processed by a natural way from a plant called Pueraria lobata. This is a preliminary study of the potential use of Kudzu starch for the restoration of Cultural Heritage, focusing, firstly, in its capacity as adhesive through a comparative evaluation with common starches. The accelerated aging process carried out proved that Kudzu ensures optimal chromatic behaviour. On the other hand, the main problem in starch paste is the biological colonization. The daidzein, a natural antimicrobial compound implicit in Kudzu starch, confirmed the resistance to microorganism in this preliminary approach. The evaluation of the adhesive capacity, and the reversibility of the starches, suggest that Kudzu starch is a valid adhesive in the field of paper restoration. Thus, the potential of this starch in the conservation of Cultural Heritage is evidenced and its use as cleaner, resistance to biological colonization and consolidant is promising. This work has been supported by the MADyLIN project (Grant No. BIA2017-87063-P) funded by the Spanish Agency for Research AEI (MINEICO/FEDER-UE). The author wishes to acknowledge professional support of the Interdisciplinary Thematic Platform from CSIC Open Heritage: Research and Society (PTI-PAIS). Technical and human support provided Macroconduct, Mesostructure and Nanotechnology by SGIker (UPV/EHU, MICINN, GV/EJ, ERDF and ESF) are also gratefully acknowledged

In paper conservation practice, adhesives are used for several purposes, such as mending tears and gaps, or paper consolidation. The criteria to choose one or another adhesive should be based on the knowledge of the properties and stability of those adhesives. However, the several different adhesives available on the market still lack enough information to help the process of a rational decision-making. In the present work, five adhesives currently used in the paper conservation field (starch paste, unsupported ArchibondTM, carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose and methylcellulose) were analyzed for their chemical stability and fungal bioreceptivity (the ability of a material to be colonized by fungi). Bioreceptivity of products used in conservation and restoration is a still poorly explored subject, despite its great relevance for the preservation of objects. The chemical and physical properties of the adhesives, before and after moist heat artificial ageing, were analyzed by thermogravimetry, capillary viscometry, measurement of water absorption capacity, colourimetry, and pH measurement. Fungal bioreceptivity of the adhesives was tested on two different substrates (paper and glass) against three fungal species: Aspergillus niger, Aureobasidium pullulans and Penicillium pinophilum. Along 56 days of incubation, the colonization area on the adhesives was measured through digital photo analysis. Starch paste was the most bioreceptive adhesive, but on other hand was also the most stable adhesive to artificial ageing, regarding colour alteration, degree of polymerization and pH. Carboxymethylcellulose and ArchibondTM showed chemical deterioration with ageing. Nevertheless, these two adhesives presented only scarce bioreceptivity to the tested fungi. Methylcellulose and hydroxypropylcellulose showed the best relationship between higher chemical stability with artificial ageing and lower fungal bioreceptivity.

Pongamia pinnata seed (PPS) starch was studied for its physicochemical, thermal, rheological and morphological properties. As PPS starch is a novel starch, it was compared with corn, mung bean, potato, pearl millet and mango kernel starches. Peak, trough and final viscosity of PPS starch was found the lowest as compared to other starches. Plots of shear stress versus shear rate for starch pastes were plotted and fitted to Herschel-Bulkley model. Yield stress and consistency index value of starch pastes varied between 6.5 and 58.9 Pa and 1.4–10.6 Pa s, respectively. During frequency sweep testing, G′ and G′′ values of starch pastes varied between 33 and 484 Pa and 18–71 Pa, PPS starch paste had the lowest values. Transition temperatures (Tο, Tp, Tc) for PPS starch was 61.5, 72.1 and 82.9 °C, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy of PPS starch showed small to large and round to oval shape starch granules with small pitches on their surface.

Millets have a high enough starch content so it can be used as an alternative source of carbohydrates. Native millet starch is known less stable against stirring and heating so it is necessary to improve starch properties by modification of starch. In this study, the character of modified millet starch heat moisture treatment (HMT) evaluated with variations treatment of temperature and heating time. Millet starch was conditioned to a moisture content of 25% and heating at 100, 130 and 150 0C for 3, 5 and 7 hours in oven. Chemical properties (water content and amylose content) and physical properties (solubility and swelling). The results showed that modification caused a decrease in the solubility and development of starch. Modification of millet starch with HMT changed the starch paste profile more stable.

Wheat with a low falling number (FN) has been particularly prevalent in recent years and has resulted in a loss of more than $140 million in a single year in the wheat industry in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. FN measurement is a standard method for the evaluation of grain α-amylase activity, and a low FN indicates a reduction in hot wholemeal paste viscosity due to sprouting damage. Recent studies show that a low FN may result from a developmental change of starch and adverse effects of non-α-amylase macromolecules on wheat. In this review, we describe the principles of FN measurement and the relationship between FN and α-amylase. We also discuss the isozymes, locations, and inhibitors of wheat α-amylase. The effects of various aspects of starch, which is the substrate of α-amylase, on wheat FN are also discussed, including starch structural characteristics (for example, starch granule architecture), starch susceptibility to α-amylase, and the interaction between starch and nonstarch macromolecules (for example, lipids). Studies on the effects of planting environments (for example, temperature) and agronomic practices (for example, irrigation and fertilization) on both starch paste viscosity and FN are also reviewed. This paper highlights the importance of considering the impacts of starch and the interactions of starch and other macromolecules, including wheat α-amylase, on wheat FN, which is important for developing strategies to solve the low FN problem.

Antiaris africana seeds yielded 29.6% starch which showed appreciable high contents of ash, protein, and fat. The average diameter of A. africana starch granules was 3.98 µm compared to 8.93 µm for maize starch. A. africana starch had a C-type XRD pattern and crystallinity of 41.5%. A. africana starch had higher AM content (24.1%) than maize starch (20.9%). The gelatinization onset temperature of A. africana starch (66.7°C) was higher than maize starch (63.1°C), but its gelatinization temperature range (8.57°C) and enthalpy (13.97 J/g) were lower than the values for maize starch (14.02°C, 14.65 J/g). The pasting temperature (Pt) and setback (Vs) were lower and breakdown (Vb) higher for A. africana starch (Pt = 82.5°C, Vs = 173.8 RVU, and Vb = 121.42 RVU) than for maize starch (Pt = 84.9°C, Vs = 183.73 RVU, and Vb = 78.58 RVU). The GPC analysis gave Mw of 2.18 × 107 g/mol and radius of gyration of 95.1 nm for Antiaris starch. Antiaris starch paste exhibited poor freeze-thaw stability but its small granule size indicates potential for application as dusting starch.

The aim of the present study was to determine the viscoelastic properties of the model mixtures of selected pasted polysaccharides. The initial materials used were water pastes of waxy corn and normal corn starch, mixed with guar gum. The rheological tests were performed in a time domain. The theoretical analysis covered the adaptation of some achievements of the phenomenological theory of viscoelasticity, which were applied during the interpretation of the results obtained for the aforementioned mixtures of biopolymers. The emphasis was placed on the description of the retardation behaviours with the aim to develop a continuous rheological Burger model.

The α-amylase enzyme has been reported during the last decade to be used for removal of the excess starch adhesive paste, which is usually used to fix textiles on paper, textiles, wood panels, or other rigid support materials. The final aim of this work was the application of α-amylase in order to remove the old starch from historical textiles in an attempt to conserve them under mild conditions. An extensive study was undertaken using various types of textiles in order to identify the optimum condition for the use of the enzyme, in relation to time, concentration, temperature and pH, before any other attempt. The first step was to simulate the textile ageing. The fabrics were coated with starch paste adhesive, and then a process of artificial thermal ageing was made on samples for different periods of time. After that the enzyme was applied to the samples, at different concentrations and at different intervals. This study also presents interesting results concerning the effect of the enzymatic treatment on the mechanical and optical parameters of linen, silk and cotton, dyed with madder or turmeric dye mordanted with CuSO4 or ferric citrate. Finally, the removal of enzymatic residues from textiles after the treatment has been studied. The application section has been fulfilled by using the whole process in a piece of a historical carpet from fabric adhered with starch. This piece of carpet is in the museum of the Faculty of Applied Arts, Helwan University in Egypt.

Native starch from waxy mutant wheat Tanikei A6599-4 is known to exhibit more stable hot paste viscosity than a typical waxy wheat (Tanikei H1881) and waxy corn. The objective of this study was to investigate the starch paste properties of Tanikei A6599-4 after cross-linking and compare with Tanikei H1881 and waxy corn. As an example of cross-linking, the reaction (at 30, 60, 120, and 360 min) with sodium trimetaphosphate was used. In Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) measurement, the unique characteristic was maintained in Tanikei A6599-4 starch cross-linked at low reaction time (

The study was carried out in order to determine and establish the functional characters of starch extracted from yam bean (Pachyrhizus erosus (L) Urban) compared with cassava starch. Yam bean is a tropical tuber legume easily grown and holds a great potential as a new source of starch. Yam bean starch shows functional properties which are peculiar to those of most starch root crops. Gelatinization temperature (53-63 degrees C) and the pasting temperature (64.5 degrees C) are less than those of cereal starch, however, the swelling power is high (54.4 g gel/g dried starch). Yam bean starch paste presents a high viscosity profile, high retrogradation tendency and low stability on cooking. The functional properties of yam bean starch, similar to those of cassava starch, allows yam bean to be used as a potential new source of starch.

The usefulness of (CT) n microsatellite markers of Wx gene in rice starch quality improvement is demonstrated in this paper with 36 F 2 plants derived from the cross between Longtefu A (Wx 1 1 Wx 1 1 ) and 371 (Wx 1 8 Wx 1 8 ). The F 2 plants could be divided into three groups according to the microsatellite marker, i.e. that of Wx 1 1 Wx 1 1 group, Wx 1 1 Wx 1 8 group and Wx 1 8 Wx 1 8 group. The F 3 seeds with the same Wx alleles were bulked to test the starch quality parameters which implied that only the Wx allele was different among the bulked samples while the genetic background was identical. Results indicated that all the starch quality parameters including amylose content (AC), gelatinization temperature (GT), gel consistency (GC) and starch paste viscosity parameters were related significantly to the Wx alleles. However, the amylopectin structure of each group had no relation to the Wx allele. This study indicated that early selections in rice breeding based on Wx microsatellite marker would improve the starch quality.

Triticum turgidum var. polonicum has been one of the primitive wheats for traditional agriculture. It is the genetic resource of several traits, such as earliness, long vitreous kernels and tolerance to high temperature during grain-filling period to improve durum wheat cultivars. T. polonicum is characterized by a long, empty outer glume controlled by P gene, which is located on chromosome 7A. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of P gene on the starch pasting properties of tetraploid and hexaploid wheat using near-isogenic lines. It was confirmed that P gene strikingly contributed to increase starch pasting properties. If it was widely confirmed that T. polonicum carries the gene to modifying starch paste viscosity, this species would be one of the potential genetic resource to develop improved cultivars.

The relative toxicity to the flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum Herbst, of films of 1-6% w/v total pyrethrins or 0.8% w/v technical D.D.T. in Shell Oil P31 sprayed on to some common building materials has been investigated. Beetles were exposed on films for 6 days, starting 24 hr. after application of the insecticide, and relatively low kills were recorded even with deposits two to three times as heavy as those normally used in practice. The materials could be placed in order, according to the toxicities of the films formed on them, as follows: 1.6 % pyrethrins 0.8 % D.D.T. 1 Rough deal, sacking Rough deal, limewashed brick Films more toxic 2 Fletton brick Fletton brick 3 Wallboard 4 Cement, cement-sand, limewashed brick ceiling board, Cement, cement-sand Films less toxic An experiment carried out under practical conditions confirmed the low toxicities of films formed on limewash and wood. The effect has also been investigated of pretreating bricks with six substances, which might influence the rate of sorption of the oily insecticide into the substrate. Pretreatment with polyvinyl alcohol, starch paste, size, and waterglass greatly increased the toxicity of pyrethrum films on brick, but water and calcium chloride failed to do so. The toxicity of a pyrethrum film on cement-sand blocks was also very greatly increased by a pretreatment with starch paste.

Starch paste viscosity plays an important role in estimating the cooking, eating, and processing quality of rice. The inheritance of starch paste viscosity in glutinous rice remains undefined. In the present study, 118 glutinous rice accessions were collected, and the genotypes of 17 starch synthesis-related genes (SSRG) were analyzed by using 43 gene-specific molecular markers. Association analysis indicated that 10 of 17 SSRGs were involved in controlling the rapid visco analyzer (RVA) profile parameters. Among these, the PUL gene was identified to play an important role in control of peak viscosity (PKV), hot paste viscosity (HPV), cool paste viscosity (CPV), breakdown viscosity (BDV), peak time (PeT), and paste temperature (PaT) in glutinous rice. Other SSRGs involved only a few RVA profile parameters. Furthermore, interactions between SSRGs were found being responsible for PeT, PaT, and BDV. Some of the RVA parameters, including PKV, HPV, CPV, CSV, and PaT, were mainly governed by single SSRG, whereas other parameters, such as BDV, SBV, and PeT, were controlled by a few SSRGs, functioning cooperatively. Further, three near-isogenic lines (NIL) of a japonica glutinous cv. Suyunuo as genetic background, with PUL, SSIII-1, and SSIII-2 alleles replaced with those of indica cv. Guichao 2, were employed to verify the genetic effects of the various genes, and the results were consistent with those obtained from the association analysis. These findings indicated that starch paste viscosity in glutinous rice had a complex genetic system, and the PUL gene played an important role in determining the RVA profile parameters in glutinous rice. These results provide important information for potentially improving the quality of glutinous rice.

Rheological properties of pastes of glutinous rice, waxy corn, and cassava starch were mea-sured with rheometers. The temperature at which viscosity increased was observed on viscogram to be highest for waxy corn starch, followed by cassava starch, and glutinous rice starch. Waxy corn starch showed the highest maximum viscosity, while cassava starch showed the largest setback upon cooling. Changes in degree of gelatinization of various starch samples, which had been stored at 5 and -20°C for 72 hr, were very small. This fact suggests that these materials would hard-ly suffer from retrogradation. The spinning distance of a starch paste increased with an increase in concentration. The increasing ratio of glutinous rice starch was the highest, followed by cassava starch and waxy corn starch. Cassava starch had the highest elastic modulus and viscosity. The apparent activation energy of glutinous rice, waxy corn, and cassava starch was 38. 60, 28. 30, and 76.35 kJ/mol, respectively. Though dynamic modulus and the dynamic loss of each starch paste increased with an in-crease in frequency, cassava showed significantly high values, compared with those of glutinous rice and waxy corn. The tanδ of waxy corn and cassava starch increased with an increase in frequency, while glutinous rice starch was scarcely changeable. Cassava starch showed the smallest tanδ.

International audience; The retention of three aroma compounds-isoamyl acetate, ethyl hexanoate, and linalool--from starch-containing model food matrices was measured by headspace analysis, under equilibrium conditions. We studied systems containing standard or waxy corn starch with one or two aroma compounds. The three studied aroma compounds interact differently: ethyl hexanoate and linalool form complexes with amylose, and isoamyl acetate cannot. However, in systems containing one aroma compound, we observed with both starches a significant retention of the three molecules. These results indicate that amylopectin could play a role in the retention of aroma. In systems containing two aroma compounds in a blend, the retentions measured for isoamyl acetate and for linalool were either equal to or less than those in systems where they were added alone. This phenomenon was attributed to competition between aroma compounds to bind with starch. The retention of aroma compounds blended in starch-based systems gave us additional information which confirmed that interactions occur not only with amylose but also with amylopectin.

The Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien is one of the largest fine arts collections worldwide, comprising the Kunsthistorisches Museum, the Austrian Theater Museum, the Museum of Ethnology, all placed in Vienna, and Schloß Ambras in Tirol. We present results from up to 10 years of insect pest monitoring in different collections and the implementation of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) concept. The Kunsthistorisches Museum was the first museum in Vienna to introduce such a concept. We also present specific insect pest problems such as a biscuit beetle (Stegobium paniceum) infestation of paintings lined with starch paste backings (linings) or the webbing clothes moth (Tineola bisselliella) infestation at the Museum of Carriages, both repeatedly occurring problems in the museum. With the help of the insect pest monitoring programs, these and other problems were found and the infested objects treated, usually with anoxia (nitrogen).

澱粉,とくにアミロペクチン(Ap)と界面活性剤との相互作用を明らかにすることを目的とし,B型粘度計を用いて,モチトウモ・コシ澱粉(WCS)希薄糊の粘度に及ぼすドデシル硫酸ナトリウム(SDS)の影響を調べた.その結果,WCS糊の粘度はSDSを添加すると著しく増加した.この粘度増加は,イオン強度を増加させると抑制され,また,糊調製時の加熱温度,加熱時間にも影響された.糊化澱粉中の膨潤澱粉と溶解澱粉とではSDSの結合量に差がないと考えられたが,糊の粘度増加は主として膨潤澱粉とSDSとの相互作用によるものであった.あらかじめWCS糊をβ一アミラーゼ処理すると,粘度増加は認められなかった.これらの結果から,WCS希薄糊の粘度がSDSを添加すると著しく増加したのは,主として,SDSが膨潤澱粉のAp外部鎖と相互作用することにより,すなわち,ApがSDSと複合体.(包接化合物)を形成することにより,硫酸イオンを持ったAp分子の隣接鎖間での静電的反発による分子の広がりが生じ,これが膨潤澱粉の一層の膨潤をもたらしたためではないかと推察した.

Human history, as the archivist must deal with it, is a fragile thing. Heir to the depredations of fire, flood, and man-made catastrophes, the paper record may also be the subject of more insidious injuries caused by those organisms which regard it as food or as a nesting material. More than 70 species of insects and 100 species of fungi are known to attack archival and library materials. Of the insect predators, cockroaches, silverfish, termites, woodworms, bookworms, black beetles, booklice, and crickets predominate as stack pests in North America and Europe. These creatures find especially attractive the cellulose content of paper, and the starch paste, animal glue, and leather components of bound volumes. Damage from insects may range from superficial attacks made on starch paste by booklice to the overwhelming destruction of the body of a document or book made by a severe termite or woodworm infestation.1

Mit der stufenweisen Elutionsanalyse wurden die durch thermisches Disperieren hervorgerufenen Veranderungen in den Sol- und Gelfraktionen von Wachsmais- und Amylosestarke verfolgt. Die Sol- und Gelfraktionen wurden durch Elektrodialyse der Kleister bzw. der Dispersionen, die im Autoklaven bei 120°C hergestellt worden waren, gewonnen. Es wurde festgestellt, das beim thermischen Dispergieren die Sol- und Gelfraktionen des Kleisters der Wachsmaisstarke stark abgebaut werden, zum Unterschied der analogen Fraktionen der Amylosestarke. Laugenzusatz zu den Solfraktionen hat praktisch keinen Einflus auf das Aussehen der Chromatogramme. Besonders in der Gelfraktion des Amylosestarkekleisters und teilweise auch in der Gelfraktion des Wachsmaisstarkekleisters sind Fragmente zu beobachten, die nach Laugenzusatz desaggregieren. In der Solfraktion des Kleisters der Wachsmaisstarke konnten nur 9% Starke gefunden werden, wahrend in der Solfraktion nach 3stundigem Dispergieren im Autoklaven ungefahr 45% Starke vorlagen. In den analogen Solfraktionen der Amylosestarke war kein Anstieg des Starkegehaltes festzustellen. Stepwise Elution Analysis of Electrodialysed Fractions of Waxy Corn- and Amylose Starch. Changes in the sol and gel fractions of waxy corn- and amylose starch during thermic dispersing were observed by stepwise elution analysis. The sol- and gel fractions were separated from pastes and dispersions, after being treated in an autoclave at 120°C, by electrodialysis. It was found that during the thermic dispersing the sol- and gel fractions of waxy corn paste decompose more intensively than the analogous fractions of amylose starch. Addition of alkali to the sol fraction of waxy corn- and amylose starch has no influence on the chromatograms. Especially in the gel fraction of amylose starch paste and partially also in the gel fraction of waxy corn starch paste fragments can be observed which after addition of alkali disaggregate. In the sol fraction of the paste of waxy corn starch only 9% of starch could be detected, in the sol fraction, isolated after 3 h of dispersing in an autoclave, however, 45% approx. were determined. In the analogous fractions of amylose starch no increase of the starch contents was observed.

The rate of crop emptying was studied in normal and operated females of Leucophaea maderae . Regardless of the amount of rat food consumed during one feeding period, 50 to 60 per cent of it was emptied from the crop within 24 hr. The rate of crop emptying is thus determined by the initial amount of food taken in and remains constant for 2 days at which time no food remains in the crop. The rate of food release from the crop is considerably higher after a feeding on starch paste than after a meal on solid rat food pellets. Thus consistency of food (solid or soft) is an additional factor which determines the rate of crop emptying. The opening of the proventricular valve appears to be controlled by either the ingluvial or the proventricular ganglion, but superimposed on these may be a certain amount of control by the frontal ganglion. Removal of the brain, corpora cardiaca, or corpora allata singly or all together do not influence the rate of crop emptying. The hypothesis is advanced that the degree of stretch of the crop by the food and consistency of the food is recorded by the stomatogastric nervous system which in turn then controls crop emptying.

Starch from six clonal selections of Dioscorea rotundata was isolated by standard procedure. The yield was between 20–24%. Various properties of these starches were compared. Granule size, 2% viscosity, peak viscosity, clarity, sol stability, total and soluble amylose contents were studied and only small variations were observed in the properties except paste viscosities among the clonal selections. The phosphorus content of Dioscorea starch was found to be three times as much as cassava starch, but low compared to potato starch. The higher gel strength of D. rotundata starch paste compared to cassava gel may be attributed to the phosphate linkages among the starch molecules in the granules. Untersuchungen uber die Eigenschaften der Starke von Dioscorea rotundata. Die Starke von sechs klonalen Auswahlen von Dioscorea rotundata wurde mittels eines Standard-Verfahrens isoliert Die Ausbeute betrug 20–24%. Verschiedene Eigenschaften der Starken wurden verglichen. Korngrose, Viskositat 2%iger Suspensionen. Spitzenviskositat, Klarheit. Solstabilitat, gesamte und losliche Amylose wurden untersucht und nur geringe Abweichungen in den Eigenschaften beobachtet, abgesehen von den Kleisterviskositaten unter den klonalen Auswahlen. Der Phosphorgehalt von Dioscorea-Starke war dreimal so hoch wie der von Cassavastarke, aber niedrig im Vergleich zu Kartoffelstarke. Die hohere Gelstarke von D. rotundata-Starkekleister im Vergleich zu Cassava-Gelen durfte den Phosphatbindungen zwischen den Starkemolekulen in den Kornern zuzuschreiben sein.

The method developed in this laboratory for the estimation of diastase in biological material satisfies 2 essential requirements: it yields accurate quantitative results, and is sufficiently sensitive to permit the determination of very small quantities of the enzyme.The quantity of the enzyme we express as the amount of reducing matter, in terms of glucose, which is produced by a known amount of the enzyme-bearing material under standardized conditions. As applied to blood, when we state that the diastase value of human blood serum is on an average 120, this means that 100 cc. of serum, incubated with 1.5% starch paste for 1/2 hour at 40°, produces a quantity of reducing matter which in regard to reducing capacity is equivalent to 120 mg. of glucose. The determination is actually carried out with 1 cc. of plasma (or serum), which is incubated with 5 cc. of starch paste and 2 cc. of a 1% NaCl solution for 30 minutes, and subsequently deproteinized by our copper method. The reduction value determined in th...

REFERRING to the letter from Mr. J. Ewen Davidson on this subject (NATURE, vol. lix. p. 126). In my experience of keeping books in Fiji and various parts of Australia, I have only had to contend with the attacks of rats, cockroaches, “silverfish” (Lepisma), and a small boring beetle; all of which attack the binding, probably for the sake of the starch paste, &c.

THE wartime importance of starch makes interesting some of the recent advances made in the study of this carbohydrate in different countries. In India, where the cowpea ( Vigna catjang ) is an important food crop, studies of its properties have been made (2). Analysis of seeds from the long-podded variety showed 39.2 per cent starch and 11.12 per cent soluble carbohydrate. Methods similar to those used commercially in producing cereal starches were applied to the cowpea in the laboratory, and the yields were 20 per cent white starch (87.3 per cent starch, 10.02 per cent moisture, and 0.14 per cent ash) and 74.4 per cent pulp (36.22 per cent protein, 23.1 per cent crude fiber, 27.55 per cent starch, 8.17 per cent moisture, and 4.4 per cent ash). A 3 per cent cowpea starch paste heated to 90° C had a viscosity somewhat higher than that of wheat starch, but lower than that of Indian corn ...

In 1955, experiments were carried out to know how pollen germination may be affected by low temperature given at different stages of primordial panicle development, comparing with non-treated control. Pot cultured plants of variety "Norin-22" were exposed to low temperature of 17°C at 6 succeeding different stages of 6 days period during primordial panicle development. Fresh pollen taken from flowers of each treated plots were subjected to germination tests on starch paste medium. Results were summarized in Figure 1. According to the figure, we can find an appreciable reduction in pollen germination in the plot treated by low temperatures during the heading and the blooming stage (Plot F), compared with those in other plots, the differences being statistically significant at the one percent level. The plot treated during the reduction division stage (Plot D) showed also lower percentage of germination than other plots except Plot F, and these differences were proved to be significant at five percent level. While among other plots (Plot A, B, C, E and control) no difference was found in the germination percentage. The percentage of sterile glume was also measured with the same material plants in all plots. The percentage of sterile glume in Plot F was observed to be higher than those in other plots. Those in Plot D and E were next to that in Plot F, and most of the sterile glume in Plot D belonged to so called "Hakufu", whch means dead white coloured glume. Other plots except Plot D, E and F showed very few differences compared with the control.

In 1953 using a rice variety "Kyoto-asahi", the same authors made observations on the effect of different temperatures on the pollen germination on artificial media. And it was found that the maximum and minimum temperatures for germination were 42∼45°C and 12∼15°C respectively. In 1954, using many varieties, similar experiments were repeated for the purpose of finding out the temperature limits for pollen germination. The applied varieties amounted 23, including 14 Japanese (6 early, 4 medium and 4 late varieties) and 9 foreign varieties. Pollen were cultured on a starch paste medium kept at various temperatures. The results were given in table 1, which showed that the maximum temperature limits were 40∼45°C and the minimum limits were 7∼14°C (Japanese varieties: 10∼14°C). Slight varietal differences were found in respect to maximum and minimum temperature limits like thus: In Japanese varieties, the maximum temperature limits in medium varieties were significantly higher than those in early and late ones. The minimum temperature limits were the highest in the early varieties and next in the late ones and the lowest in the medium varieties. Comparing foreign varieties with Japanese ones, a statistically significant difference was found in the germination of pollen at minimum temperature, the temperature limits being lower in foreign ones than in Japanese ones.