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Groups of the Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus were observed pick feeding at small piles of boiled and crushed African Oil Palm Elaeis guineensis fruit at the south Gambian village of Marakissa (16.39044°N, 13.12055°W) on several occasions in the 1980s and 1990s. The vultures foraged alongside working women farmers (Barlow et al 1997). This remains the only published reference for this type of feeding habit based on direct observations. The utilisation of non-human harvested African Oil Palm E. guineensis fruit (also known as palm-nuts) as a food source by N. monachus has been described previously, derived from a road-killed bird collected on 22nd September 2003 in coastal Gambia that was found with a stomach containing 11 fresh whole fruits of E. guineensis (Barlow 2004). The intact fruits had not been boiled, crushed or seemingly processed by farmers in the small-scale village enterprise palm oil production process. Another complete N. monachus specimen found in a rice field 100 km inland on 9th February 2002 had five Oil Palm pits (all the fleshy mescocarp parts were missing and the seed is contained inside the pit, e.g. see Figure 3) in the desiccated remains (Barlow 2004). We have no reports from elsewhere of N. monachus feeding on Oil Palm fruit or the by-product since the 2004 report, and a photographic record of N. monachus foraging on Oil Palm fruit in the field remains sought after. In the context of other species, feeding on palm fruit by the Palm-nut Vulture Gypohierax angolensis is well documented (Bannerman 1930, Clark & Davies 2018), and three fruits were found in the stomach of a desiccated carcass of an adult African Harrier-Hawk Polyboirodes typus found in the Central River Region of Gambia, February 2005 (personal observation).

The head−neck system of birds is a highly complex structure that performs a variety of demanding and competing tasks. Morphofunctional adaptations to feeding specializations have previously been identified in the head and neck, but performance is also influenced by other factors such as its phylogenetic history. In order to minimize the effects of this factor, we here analyzed the anatomy of three closely related vultures that distinctly differ in feeding strategy. Vultures, as obligate scavengers, have occupied a special ecological niche by exclusively feeding on carrion. However, competition among sympatric vultures led to ecological differences such as preference of certain types of food from a carcass. Via comparative dissections we systematically described the craniocervical anatomy in the Griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), the Cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) and the Hooded vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus) that exploit the same food resources in different ways. Our results revealed differences in the number of cervical vertebrae, in the morphology of the atlas−axis complex as well as in the neck musculature despite overall similarities in the musculoskeletal system. Gulpers, rippers and scrappers adopt specific postures while feeding from a carcass, but the cervical vertebral column is indispensable to position the head during all kinds of behavior. The great range of demands may explain the conservation of the overall muscle topography of the neck across the studied taxa.

SummaryUnderstanding the attitude of people towards vultures, especially factors that influence behaviours that support their conservation, is crucial if the decline in vultures is to be slowed and reversed. Their vital ecosystem function in keeping the environment free of carcasses and reducing the spread of disease is not yet appreciated in Ghana. Little is known about the attitude of Ghanaians’ about vultures. Structured questionnaires and key informant surveys were employed with a sample size of 460 respondents randomly selected across Ghana. Over 85% of respondents were familiar with the Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus and vultures were culturally important to 56% of respondents. Diseases that affect livestock are claimed to be treated with chemicals such as diclofenac sodium to which vultures are highly susceptible globally and livestock carcasses were not available to vultures as 53% of respondents bury carcasses. A new poisoning pathway has emerged in which furadan is used to poison wildlife for bushmeat and the offal removed which is then consumed by vultures, as indicated by 78% of respondents. The majority of respondents positively thought vultures were important and must be protected. Poisoning, habitat loss particularly the loss of silk cotton tree Ceiba pentandra and trade in vulture parts for traditional medicine are major threats to vultures in Ghana. Continuous awareness creation, positive attitude towards the environment, vulture conservation programmes and protection of breeding sites were some urgent conservation actions recommended to ensure the survival of vultures.

Background and objective: African vultures are under pressure from various, well-known anthropogenic threats. Here we describe and aim to highlight a littleknown source of mortality to two Critically Endangered vulture species (Gyps africanus and Necrosyrtes monachus), as well as the Endangered Cape Vulture (Gyps copropheres) in southern Africa – that of captive big cats killing vultures that land in their enclosures to feed on food scraps or faeces or to bathe in drinking water. Methods: Personal observations, reports from public, interviews with current and former staff from predator parks and lion hunting ranches. Discussion: While the spatial and numerical extent of this mortality has not yet been quantified, if it is found to be widespread then failure to address it may present a risk to the regions’ vulture populations. Conclusion: We encourage captive breeding facilities and regulatory authorities to take appropriate action to prevent free-roaming vultures from coming into contact with captive big cats, and we highlight the need for further research to determine the spatial extent and magnitude of this threat to African vultures.

Hooded Vultures Necrosyrtes monachus are critically endangered but little is known of their year-round use of nests or whether other species usurp Hooded Vulture nest sites. We investigated visitation rates by Hooded Vultures and other species (including potential nest predators and usurpers) to examine their effect on Hooded Vulture breeding success. We present observations of 33 species recorded by camera traps at 12 Hooded Vulture nests over a total of 93 nest-months (2 095 nest-days). Several pairs of Hooded Vultures visited their nests regularly during the non-breeding season, some adding nesting material, highlighting that pairs visited their nest(s) year round. Egyptian Geese Alopochen aegyptiaca, potential usurpers of raptor nests, were present at occupied and unoccupied Hooded Vulture nests, but we recorded no usurpation of nests by Egyptian Geese and they had no impact on vulture breeding success. Hooded Vulture breeding failure was linked to two species only: camera-trap imagery recorded one ca...

Relatively little is documented about nest material theft in vultures. We used camera traps to monitor Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus nests for a year. We report camera trap photographs of a starling Lamprotornis sp. removing what appeared to be dung from an inactive Hooded Vulture nest on Cleveland Game Reserve, north-eastern South Africa, in October 2016. We also had evidence of a Hooded Vulture attempting to remove twigs from the same nest in August 2016. This behaviour is previously unrecorded in Hooded Vultures and, although seemingly rare, it represents an attempt to reduce the energetic costs of nest building in this species.

A number of vulture species were ubiquitous in undisturbed West African savannahs. However, in recent decades most species have declined rapidly and some are now at the brink of extinction. For some species, large protected areas are their last strongholds, but even there pronounced declines have become obvious in recent years. However, we lack even basic knowledge about current distribution, densities, movement patterns and threats. Comoe National Park (CNP) in northeast Cote d’Ivoire is one of the largest protected savannahs in West Africa and still hosts breeding populations of three critically endangered species (Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus, White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus, White-headed Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis). In total, 590 km of searches for vultures and their nests were conducted on foot in southwest CNP in the dry seasons of 2018 and 2019. Thirty-seven active vulture nests (Hooded Vulture – 2, White-backed Vulture – 32, White-headed Vulture – 3) were discovered. CNP may be one of the last refuges for these species in Cote d’Ivoire and important for their conservation in West Africa. There are, however, hints that vultures have declined in CNP since the 1990s and are now rarer especially at the Park's fringe. Together with observations of increasing poaching activities, this underlines that large reserves with strict law-enforcement are needed to save West Africa's vultures from extinction.

We report findings on the vulture trade in northern Nigeria, where it is commonly practised especially to supply the traditional medicine industry. We administered an open-ended questionnaire to 113 traditional, predominantly Hausa medicinal traders in 39 markets within eight states in northern Nigeria. Of the interviewed traders, 78% only had feathers of vultures on display in their stalls, 11% also offered vulture heads and 4.4% offered entire vultures; 40% of traders sold vultures for spiritual healing and 25% sold vultures for consumption. Forty-three percent of traders were supplied most often from vulture populations inside Nigeria and 48% were principally supplied from other countries in the region, as far west as Benin and east to Sudan. Increased prices for parts during the past 10 years reflected similar, or perhaps increasing, demand but lower availability of vultures. Hooded Vulture ( Necrosyrtes monachus ) was the commonest species traded with 90% of parts belonging to this species. Vultures sold in stalls had been killed using agricultural chemicals, shotguns, traps, and ground tobacco powder. Urgent and drastic conservation measures are needed to prevent further exploitation of critically endangered vultures in Nigeria and surrounding countries. Keywords: traditional medicine, vulture trade, northern Nigeria, conservation

Vultures constitute an important functional group in many ecosystems, providing crucial ecosystem services both in natural and humanized environments. These scavengers are facing massive declines worldwide, but in several African countries virtually nothing is known on populations' status and threats, hampering the development of adequate conservation strategies. In Guinea-Bissau, globally important populations of Hooded Necrosyrtes monachus and African white-backed vultures Gyps africanus were recently reported. Using the country as a study area, we aim to characterize human-vulture interactions in West Africa applying a multidisciplinary approach. We assessed the status and distribution of vulture populations using data from 1711 km of roadside transects, examined predictors of their distribution, and produced a nationwide population estimate for the Hooded Vulture, using an innovative method based on the relationship between the size of human population in settlements and vulture numbers. We conducted 47 stakeholder interviews to assess perceived roles played by vultures, and to investigate potential anthropogenic threats. Hooded vultures were strongly associated with high human population densities, whereas no relation was found between African white-backed and Rüppell's vultures and any of the tested predictors, which included cattle density, precipitation and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, among others. We estimate a national population of 43347 Hooded vultures, the largest population reported in the species range. Respondents were generally aware of the services provided by vultures, especially waste and carcass removal, including in urban areas. Hunting for witchcraft and traditional medicine was the most frequently recognised threat, while poisoning was ranked as having the highest impact. We hypothesise that poisoning-related mortality may be affecting African white-backed and Rüppell's vultures' distribution and explain their scarcity in apparently highly suitable habitats. Our results suggest a mutualistic rather than a commensalistic relationship between vultures and humans, with important implications for designing and implementing conservation strategies. Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT); Institute of Biodiversity and Protected Areas of Guinea-Bissau-IBAP; Rufford Foundation; Fondation MAVA info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Diurnal raptors have declined significantly in western Africa since the 1960s. To evaluate the impact of traditional medicine and bushmeat trade on raptors, we examined carcasses offered at markets at 67 sites (1–80 stands per site) in 12 countries in western Africa during 1990–2013. Black kite Milvus migrans and hooded vulture Necrosyrtes monachus together accounted for 41% of 2,646 carcasses comprising 52 species. Twenty-seven percent of carcasses were of species categorized as Near Threatened, Vulnerable or Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Common species were traded more frequently than rarer species, as were species with frequent scavenging behaviour (vs non-scavenging), generalist or savannah habitat use (vs forest), and an Afrotropical (vs Palearctic) breeding range. Large Afrotropical vultures were recorded in the highest absolute and relative numbers in Nigeria, whereas in Central Africa, palm-nut vultures Gypohierax angolensis were the most abundant vulture species. Estimates based on data extrapolation indicated that within West Africa 73% of carcasses were traded in Nigeria, 21% in Benin and 5% elsewhere. Offtake per annum in West Africa was estimated to be 975–1,462 hooded vultures, 356–534 palm-nut vultures, 188–282 Rüppell's griffons Gyps rueppellii, 154–231 African white-backed vultures Gyps africanus, 143–214 lappet-faced vultures Torgos tracheliotos, and 40–60 crowned eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus. This represents a sizeable proportion of regional populations, suggesting that trade is likely to be contributing significantly to declines. Stronger commitment is needed, especially by governments in Nigeria and Benin, to halt the trade in threatened raptors and prevent their extirpation.

Despite major declines in the population of vultures around the world, noticeable increases were reported in the populations of Hooded VulturesNecrosyrtes monachusover the past decade in Accra—an important vulture habitat in Ghana. In recent times, however, there is a growing concern that the vulture numbers are decreasing even though scientific data to support this is nonexisting. As a vital zoogeographical and conservation tool, it is important to keep an up-to-date knowledge about urban bird populations amidst rapid urbanization and associated changes. Using a combination of field data, literature review, and stakeholder consultations, it was indicative that severe decline might have indeed occurred in the populations of Hooded Vultures in Accra. Evidence suggests the killing of vultures for consumption, traditional medicine, and black magic in an undercover trade with possible transboundary connections as important underlying factor. Additional factors suspected to underlie the declines include changes in management of urban facilities and destruction of roosting and nesting trees. The implications of interspecific competition with Pied CrowsCorvus albuson Hooded Vultures however remain unclear. There is an urgent need for conservation campaign and education to save the Hooded Vulture in Ghana.

Summary Various species of soaring birds were studied by following them in a motor-glider, mainly over the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. The characteristics of thermal convection in the study area are described in general terms. The two vulture species of the genus Gyps live by scavenging among the herds of migratory ungulates, especially Wildebeest. They are not territorial, and gather in large numbers on kills. When raising young they may be obliged by game movements to forage at long distances from their nests. Their cross-country performance is adequate for a foraging radius of over 100 km in dry-season conditions. Their ability to compete with Spotted Hyaenas is thought to depend partly on this factor and partly on an advantage in arriving early at kills. These two species appear to find food more by watching other vultures than by searching for it directly. The Lappet-faced and White-headed Vultures are thought to be sedentary, and to depend on thorough searching of a fixed foraging territory, rather than on following migratory game. They have lower wing loadings than the Gyps vultures, and were not seen cross-country flying. They never gather in large numbers. The Hooded Vulture is a solitary nester, but it does fly across country, and does gather at kills. Vultures soar individually, and seem to be good at exploiting such phenomena as thermal streets. They do not travel in flocks. Tawny and Martial Eagles react positively to the glider, and are suspected of regarding it as potential prey. White Storks migrate between Europe and Africa, and also travel about within East Africa, by thermal soaring. They soar in flocks, and unlike vultures rely on co-ordinated social behaviour to locate thermals. In choosing their route, they often fail to react to obvious weather signs. They enter cumulus clouds from the bottom when thermalling, but probably do not climb far above cloudbase. Marabou Storks soar individually, but also sometimes travel in flocks. When doing so, they show less lateral spreading than White Storks, which reduces the effectiveness of the flock as a thermal-finding unit; on the other hand, they do seem to react to visible weather signs, like vultures or glider pilots. White Pelicans, which travel by thermal soaring between different lakes in the Rift Valley, show the most highly co-ordinated social soaring behaviour. Unlike White Storks, they fly in formation even when circling. Storks and pelicans showed more signs of alarm when approached by the glider than did the vultures or birds of prey. This could be due to their being preyed upon in flight, for instance by Martial Eagles. The basis of conventional thermal cross-country flying is outlined, and it is explained why the high wing loadings of the Gyps vultures are appropriate to their peripatetic habits. A method of thermal soaring without circling is discussed, and shown to be more readily feasible for small than for large birds. Some differences in soaring techniques between birds and glider pilots are interpreted in the light of this calculation. A case in which Black Kites apparently used this technique to soar in random turbulence is described. The cross-country speed attainable by thermal soaring should be similar to the cruising speed under power in both large and small birds. Rough calculations of the energy costs suggest that a large bird (White Stork) should reduce its fuel consumption by a factor of 23 by soaring rather than flying under power, whereas this factor would be only 2–4 for a small bird (Bonelli's Warbler). Other reasons why thermal soaring is an advantageous means of travel for large but not for small birds are also indicated.

Comparative large-scale roadside counts (8353 km), through Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, conducted in 1969-73, were repeated 30-35 years later with the same observer and methodology and at the same season. The transect was divided into three geographical zones and between protected and unprotected areas. All diurnal raptors were recorded (22 801 individuals), as well as large game birds. Large vultures suffered a dramatic decline (98%) outside protected areas. The Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus population also collapsed in some regions, but survived in central Burkina Faso. Conversely, their abundance index did not decrease significantly in national parks. Four eagle species decreased by 86-93% and seven were not even recorded in the later study outside protected areas; by contrast, in national parks, only three species had declined marginally. Smaller Accipitridae (kites, goshawks, buzzards) also exhibited significant declines outside but not within national parks where woodland species reached their highest densities. The Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus, mostly European migrants, declined sharply everywhere. African falcons decreased only outside protected areas. Among Palearctic migrants, Montagu's Circus pygargus and Pallid Harriers C. macrourus decreased significantly, Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus less markedly, and Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus and Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus not at all. Similar trends had previously been documented in Cameroon. They are associated with human population growth and development, global habitat degradation and ecosystem impoverishment (woodcutting, agricultural intensification, overgrazing, desertification). Heavy use of pesticides, control of locust outbreaks and overhunting have suppressed major food sources. Vultures may suffer from a shortage of carcasses, poisoning for predator control or persecution for trade of meat and body parts. Protected areas play a prominent role in the maintenance of vulture and eagle populations, even though they currently cover less than 2% of the Sudan zone and are virtually absent in the Sahel.

The diurnal cycle of metabolic rate (MR, J/g·h, based on VO2 and VCO2) was measured in 14 Griffon Vultures (Gyps fulvus), two Hooded Vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus) and one White-backed Vulture (Gyps africanus) at different ambient temperatures (−7 to +34°C). In (so far) three Griffon Vultures the heart rate (HR) and body temperature (Tb) were measured by telemetry, simultaneously with MR. The three vulture species show very similar physiological mechanisms. In all cases measured MR is significantly below allometrically expected values (G. fulvus −46 %,N. monachus −24 %,G. africanus −6 %). Fasting for 4 days results in an additional MR reduction of up to 27–35 %. There is a very small change of MR with ambient temperature (Ta). Therefore no obvious thermoneutral zone was observed in the broad Ta-range tested (see above). Ta-independent MR is the largest yet measured in birds. Thermal conductance (TC-wet) lies dramatically below expected values (−21.5 to −53.7 %), and is extensively used to control heat loss. All these special MR-strategies save energy expenditure. Tb of resting griffons shows a clear sinusoidal diurnal rhythm. The average Tb during the night has a mean value of 37.7 ± 0.49 °C; the mean day-time value is 38.9±0.25 °C; the total average is 1.3/1.1 °C below expected values for Falconiformes, an effect significantly reducing energy expenditure. At Ta higher than about 25–30 °C, Tb increases significantly with increasing Ta, whereas MR does not vary significantly. Thus, the MR-independent variation of Tb may function as an additional and very effective mechanism for saving energy.

The location and density of nests of the hooded vulture ( Necrosyrtes monacus ) and the pied crow ( Corvus albus ) were systematically investigated on the campus of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Kumasi, Ghana, from December, 2004 to April, 2005. Trees with crow and vulture nests were identified, and the positions of nests above ground (nest height) determined in three sites on the campus categorized as developed, undeveloped (protected) and undeveloped (unprotected). Canopy cover (above and at nest level) were visually estimated. In all, one hundred and two (102) nests were recorded of which 35 were inhabited by crows and 67 by vultures. Crow and vulture nest densities were found to be 2.73 km-2 and 5.23 km-2, respectively. Mean nest height for crow was 18m (S.D. 5.9) and that for vulture was 17m (S.D. 4.9). Eighty-nine per cent (89%) of all nests were found in the developed areas of the KNUST campus, a situation which can be attributable to availability of food source. The birds clearly demonstrated host tree specificity, nesting on only 13 tree species out of an estimated 200 or more plants on campus. Terminalia catapa was the most preferred host tree, accounting for approximately 29% of all nests encountered. To ensure maximum protection, most of the birds nested on trees with sparse to dense foliage. The results of this study suggest threatening conservation implications for these wild birds, in view of the indiscriminate felling of trees especially around human habitations. Journal of the Ghana Science Association Vol. 9 (2) 2007: pp. 138-145

The roadside counts conducted in 1969–1973 through Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger and northern Cameroon (9 712km) were repeated in 2000–2004 by the same observer, using the same methods, during the same season. Overall, 28 837 Falconiforms from 51 species were recorded. The four large vultures decreased dramatically (98%) outside protected areas. The Hooded Vulture also collapsed over wide regions, but survived locally. Medium-size and large eagles, and the Secretary Bird, similarly declined >90% outside, but not inside, national parks, where woodland species also reach their highest frequency. Other African raptors were either stable or decreased significantly (e.g. Black Kite and Chanting Goshawk 35–70%). Among Palaearctic migrants, Common and Lesser Kestrels declined sharply, Short-toed Eagle, Montagu's and Pallid Harriers less significantly, and Marsh Harrier and Booted Eagle increased. Widespread habitat degradation, overgrazing, desertification, hunting pressure and heavy use of pesticides are probably involved in this massive loss of biodiversity. Protected areas, though covering 98%). Le percnoptère brun ne se maintient plus que dans quelques régions. Les grands aigles et le serpentaire ont aussi diminué de >90% en dehors, mais non à l'intérieur, des parcs nationaux où tous les rapaces liés aux boisements atteignent leur abondance maximale. Les autres rapaces africains sont restés stables ou ont diminué significativement (35 à 70% pour le Milan noir et l'autour chanteur par exemple). Parmi les migrateurs paléarctiques, crécerelle et crécerellette ont fortement diminué, circaète et busards cendré et pâle ont diminué modérément, tandis que busard des roseaux et aigle botté ont augmenté. Dégradation générale des habitats, surpâturage, désertification, pression de chasse et utilisation des pesticides sont probablement impliqués dans ces diminutions qui reflètent une érosion générale de la biodiversité. Les aires protégées, bien qu'elles couvrent

Previous surveys of scavengers in urban Kampala indicated an increase in the numbers of Hooded Vultures and a decline in the occurrence of other vulture species. This survey provides supporting evidence for this apparent trend with a total of 420–450 Hooded Vultures estimated as resident in urban Kampala and only one other species (Egyptian Vulture) recorded. Vulture News Vol. 53 2005: 10-14

Mundy (1982, The comparative biology of southern African Vultures, Vulture Study Group, Johannesburg.) states that records exist for only 22 nests of the Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus in Rhodesia, of which he visited 15, while in only three nests were the eggs measured. He makes no specific mention of egg measurements from nests south of the Limpopo River, although the average of 10 "Southern African" eggs is given as 74,72 (Range 68,7 - 78,1) by 55,89 (Range 54,0 - 57,8) mm. Nevertheless, five South African breeding records exist, all from the Kruger.