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Background and Aim: Toxoplasma gondii infection arises in transplant recipient groups, but at varying frequencies. Reactivation of latent T. gondii infection in transplant patients is uncommon, but does occur. The incidence of reactivation is greater in patient groups receiving more aggressive immunosuppressive therapy. Early diagnosis and treatment should be considered in T. gondii-antibody-positive patients subjected to solid organ transplantation. The aim of this study was to estimate the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in renal transplant recipients in Khartoum, Sudan, using serological and molecular methods. Methods: This was a descriptive cross sectional, hospital based study, blood sample were collected from 108 participants; out of them 58 renal transplant recipient individuals and 50 healthy Blood donor attending Sudanese Kidney Association Hospital and Sudan Heart Center Blood Bank. Demographic data were collected by structured questionnaire. All samples were tested for anti-Toxoplasma IgG and IgM antibodies using ELISA, and PCR for detection of Toxoplasma DNA was performed. Results: The seropositivity of IgG anti-T. gondii antibodies was higher in renal transplant recipients than in blood donors (36.2% vs 32.0%). Anti-toxoplasma IgM was positive in one renal transplant recipient individual (1.70%), and no samples exhibit reactive IgM antibody for blood donors. None of the samples exhibited positivity to T.gondii DNA. Conclusion: the study showed a relatively high seroprevalence of T.gondii antibodies in renal transplant recipients and blood donor volunteers, on the other hand, the prevalence was much higher in the study conducted in pregnant woman in Sudan. Our study highlighted that asymptomatic blood donors, may constitute a significant risk of transmitting toxoplasmosis to susceptible recipients.

Background and Aim : Toxoplasmosis is one of the most common comorbidities in HIV-positive patients with CD4+ T lymphocytes below 200 cells/μl. Toxoplasmosis with encephalitis may affect HIV infection, in particular in patients with developing AIDS. Early diagnosis and treatment of toxoplasmosis reduces the mortality rate in HIV-positive people. The aim of this study was to estimate the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in HIV-positive patients in Khartoum, Sudan using serological and molecular methods. Methods : This was a descriptive cross sectional, hospital based study, blood sample were collected from 100 participants; out of them were 50 HIV/AIDS patients and 50 were healthy Blood donors attending HIV Center -Omdurman Hospital, and Sudan Heart Center blood bank respectively. Socio- demographic data were collected by structured questionnaire. Of the 50 HIV/AIDS patients, 25 (50%) were from each gender, their age ranged between 22 and 62 with mean of 39.5+10.69. They were classified into two age groups; from 22 to 42 years, and from 43 to 62 years, and their distribution was 29 (58%), and 21 (42%) respectively. According to the clinical stage they were classified into the four clinical-stage groups and their distribution was as following: 06 (12.0%) in stage 1, 02 (04%) in stage 2, 40 (80.0%) in stage 3, and 02 (04.0%) in stage 4. Twelve of them (22%) were under ART treatments. The 50 blood donors on their hand were all males, their age was ranged between 18 and 42 years old. Regarding their educatio, 15 (30%) were educated, while the remaining 35 (70%) were none educated. Mentioning their marital status 10 (20%) were married, while 40 (80%) were single. Regarding the contact with cats 25 (50%) has contact with cats. All samples collected were tested for anti-Toxoplasma IgG and IgM antibodies by ELISA, and by PCR for detection of Toxoplasma DNA.. Results: Out of the 50 HIV/AIDS patients; Anti-Toxoplasma IgM was detected in two patients (04%), while IgG was detected in 08 (16%) patients, the Toxoplasma DNA was detected in three (06%) patients.Regarding the blood donors group; all studied blood donors showed negative results for anti-toxoplasma IgM, while 16 (32%) showed positive anti-Toxoplasma IgG.No blood donors sample was detected positive for Toxoplasma DNA with PCR. There were no significant differences in comparison between the blood donors and the HIV/AIDS patients regarding serological and molecular toxoplasma test results. Conclusion : The current study showed a relatively high seroprevalance of anti-T.gondii IgG and low IgM antibodies in HIV-positive patients in comparison with previous studies in Sudan. Considering the relatively high seroprevalance rate of toxoplasma infection in blood donors reported in this study, toxoplasmosis should be considered as a significant transfusion risk.

Background Malaria infection during pregnancy can result in placental malaria and is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes particularly among primigravidae. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence and risk factors for placental malaria and its effect on pregnancy outcomes in Blue Nile state, Sudan. Methods A cross-sectional hospital-based study was conducted consecutively during January 2012–December 2015 in three main hospitals in Blue Nile State, Sudan. At delivery, peripheral and placental blood samples were collected from consenting women. Finger prick blood was used for preparation of peripheral smears and for haemoglobin measurement. Smears were stained with Giemsa and examined microscopically for malaria parasites. Pregnancy outcomes in association to placental malaria were investigated. Results A total of 1149 mothers and their newborns were recruited. The mean (SD) of the age was 23.3 (5.2) years. Detection of malaria parasites was confirmed in 37.8% of the peripheral blood films and 59.3% of the placental films with Plasmodium falciparum as the only species detected. In multivariate analysis, younger age ≤23.2 years old (AOR = 3.2, 95% CI 1.9–5.5; P

The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence of submicroscopic infections and to assess its impact on maternal anaemia and low birth weight. A cross-sectional study was carried out with 1149 consented pregnant women who delivered at 3 main hospitals in the Blue Nile State, between January 2012 and December 2015. From a matched maternal peripheral, placental maternal side, and cord blood sample, blood films and dried spots were prepared for microscopic examination and nested polymerase chain reaction (n-PCR), respectively. 107 out of 447 negative blood films were found to have submicroscopic infection detected using n-PCR in any of the three compartments. Placental samples had a significantly higher prevalence (142) of submicroscopic infections compared with the peripheral (6.5%) and cord (8.1%) samples. The mean (SD) of the maternal haemoglobin (Hb) was significantly lower in cases with submicroscopic parasitaemia (10.9 (0.8) vs. 12.1 (0.7) g/dl, P<0.001) compared with those who had no submicroscopic parasitaemia. Submicroscopic malaria infection was associated with anaemia (OR 19.7, (95% CI, 10.3–37.8)). Thirty-eight babies born to women with submicroscopic infections were low birth weight (LBW) and was significantly lower in submicroscopic parasitaemia (2.663 (0.235) vs. 2.926 (0.341) kg, P<0.001). Submicroscopic malaria infection was associated with LBW (OR = 2.7, (95% CI, 1.2–5.6)). There is a high incidence of submicroscopic infections in any of the three compartments regardless of age or parity. Submicroscopic infection is a risk of maternal anaemia and low birth weight in women in this area of high seasonal malaria transmission.

Tropical theileriosis caused by the apicomplexan hemoparasite Theileria annulata is a tick-borne disease that constraints livestock production in parts of Europe, Asia and Africa. Four Hyalomma tick species transmit T. annulata in at least eight Africa countries (Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan and Ethiopia). The two dominant T. annulata vector ticks present in Africa, H. scupense and H. anatolicum, underlie two different patterns of transmission, which in turn greatly influence the epidemiology of tropical theileriosis. H. dromedarii and H. lusitanicum are also capable of transmitting T. annulata in North Africa, but their roles are associated with specific production systems and agro-ecological contexts. The emergence of resistance to the most widely used theilericidal compound, buparvaquone, continues to limit the effectiveness of chemotherapy. In addition, acaricide use is increasingly becoming unsustainable. Deployable T. annulata attenuated live vaccines established from local strains in Tunisia, Sudan and Egypt are available, and recent work has indicated that these vaccines can be protective under conditions of natural transmission. However, vaccination programmes may vary over space and time due to differences in the prevalence of disease amongst cattle populations, as well seasonal variation in vector activity. We review recent descriptive and analytical surveys on the epidemiology of T. annulata infection with reference to (a) demographic aspects such as breeds and ages of cattle herds previously exposed to distinct T. annulata infection pressures and (b) seasonal dynamics of tick activity and disease transmission. We then discuss how the wider endemic patterns that we delineate can underpin the development and execution of future vaccination programmes. We also outline options for integrated control measures targeting tick vectors and husbandry practices.

Toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii, is one of the most common parasitic infections of humans and other warm-blooded animals in most parts of the world. The disease is common among sheep and goats and it is recognized as one of the major causes of reproductive failure in these animals. Cattle, on the other hand, can be infected, but abortion or perinatal mortality has not been recorded. This survey was carried out to study the prevalence of this disease in cattle in Khartoum and Gazira States (Sudan). 181 sera samples collected from dairy cattle with reproductive problems were assayed for antibodies to T. gondii by ELISA. The prevalence rate of T. gondii antibodies in cattle at herd level was 44.8% (13/29). Herd level infection rates were 50% and 33.3% in Khartoum and Gazira States, respectively. The overall prevalence of T. gondii at individual level in both states was 13.3% (24/181). The prevalence was 12.7% (17/134), was 14.9% (7/47) in Khartoum and Gazira State, respectively. There was significantly higher (P<0.05) prevalence of T. gondii antibodies in the age group less than one year old (36.4%) than in other age groups and in males (30.8%) than in females (11.9%) while no significant relationship was discerned regarding breed, location, season, or signs of reproductive disease.

Aim: This seroprevalence study was carried out to detect anti Caprine Arthritis-Encephalitis Virus (CAEV) antibodies in goat sera in five States in Sudan during 2009 and 2010. Materials and Methods: In this study, 432 sera samples collected from five States in Sudan were screened for anti-CAEV antibodies using a commercially available competitive ELISA (cELISA) kit. Results: Out of 432 samples, 25 (5.8%) tested positive using ELISA. The highest prevalence was recorded in El-Gazira State (19%), whereas the prevalence was 10.7% in Kassala State, 0.92% in Khartoum State and no samples tested positive from Northern and River Nile States. Conclusion: Our findings revealed that the disease had spread to other states, apart from its previously known prevalence in Khartoum, in Sudan. Our results call for better control and quarantine measures on imports of live animals into Sudan for genetic improvement programs. Further epizootiological investigations on CAEV in goats and Maedi Visna Virus in sheep at a national level are also needed to carefully monitor and prevent its spread and also to determine its impact on the economy of Sudan.

Background. The most prominent variant surface antigens (VSAs) ofPlasmodium falciparumare the var gene-encodedPlasmodium falciparumerythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) family, which serves as a parasite-sequestering ligand to endothelial cells. In this study we have examined the antibody reactivity of autologous plasma from symptomatic and asymptomatic malaria infected children against the infected erythrocytes’ surface antigens using flow cytometry.Methods. Ethidium-bromide-labelled erythrocytic mature forms ofP. falciparumparasites obtained from symptomatic and asymptomatic children were sequentially incubated with autologous plasma and fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated (FITC) antihuman IgG. Plasma antibody reactivity was detected by flow cytometry.Results. Asymptomatic children had more prevalence of trophozoites in peripheral blood (66%) compared to symptomatic children (16%),p=0.002. The mean percentage of infected RBCs reacting with autologous sera was 89.78 among symptomatic children compared to 79.62 among asymptomatic children (p=0.09). Moreover, the mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) in the asymptomatic was significantly higher compared to symptomatic children (pvalue = 0.040).Conclusion. Variant surface antigens onPlasmodium falciparuminfected RBCs from symptomatic malaria children tend to be better recognized by IgG antibodies. This may suggest a role of some IgG antibodies in severity of malaria.

Tropical theileriosis has long been recognized as a hindrance to the development of sound dairy industry in the Sudan and is a cause of major economic losses. Serological surveys indicated that Theileria annulata infection is widespread in the country but the disease mostly affects exotic dairy breeds and their crosses with indigenous breeds. The disease has recently been identified in Darfur and southern parts of Blue Nile State in dairy farms around large urban areas where it has never been detected before. These new introductions were accompanied by the establishment of Hyalomma anatolicum tick which is the main vector of the parasite in the Sudan. The disease is routinely diagnosed using microscopic examination of stained blood and lymph node biopsy smears. More advanced techniques are mainly used for research purposes. Tropical theileriosis in the Sudan is mainly controlled by using anti-theilerial drugs and acaricide application. It is recommended that live attenuated schizont vaccines developed from locally isolated T. annulata strains be used to control the disease. In addition, every care should be taken to prevent introduction of the disease into new areas.

Aim: This cross-sectional survey was conducted to detect anti- N. caninum antibodies in bovine dams' sera samples in nine States of the Sudan. Materials and Methods: Two hundred and seventy six bovine dams' sera samples collected from nine States in the Sudan were screened for anti-Neospora caninum antibodies using a commercial competitive ELISA (cELISA) kits. Results: The results showed an overall prevalence rate of 15.9% (range 6.7% - 70%) of Neospora caninum antibodies. The prevalence rates were high in White Nile (70%) and North Kordofan (30%), moderate in the Northern (15.6%), Red Sea (13.3%) States and was low in the South Kordofan (9.4%) and River Nile (6.7%). States with high values of percentage inhibition (PI) detected in White Nile State compared to other States. No antibodies were detected in El Gadarif, Kassala and South Darfur States. The prevalence was observed to be high in crossbred dams (70%) with statistically significant difference (P

Disease prevalence studies are one of the most valuable tools to demonstrate the risk or impact of certain infections in local and global economies. The data obtained in these studies contribute to develop strategies for disease control. The present study aims to provide information about the prevalence of babesiosis and anaplasmosis in the northern regions of Sudan. Blood samples from four different states of Sudan were collected from apparently healthy cattle (n=692), DNA was extracted and the prevalence of Babesia and Anaplasma species was analyzed by PCR. The results confirmed the presence of Babesia bigemina, Babesia bovis and Anaplasma marginale in cattle in northern Sudan with overall prevalence rates of 4.0%, 1.9% and 6.1%, respectively. Statistical analysis revealed that the prevalence of B. bigemina, B. bovis and A. marginale varies significantly between Sudanese states as well as in different age groups, while gender seems not to have a significant effect on the prevalence of these pathogens among Sudanese cattle. The highest prevalence for B. bigemina was found in the Aljazirah State while the highest number of A. marginale positive samples was reported in River Nile., This research was facilitated by ICTTD-3, financed by the International Cooperation Program of the European Union, coordination action project No. 510561. R.C. Galindo was funded by Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, Spain.

Theileria-free Hyalomma anatolicum larvae were fed on a naturally infected sheep with Theileria lestoquardi. Resulting flat nymphs of the tick were able to transmit T. lestoquardi infection upon feeding to 3/3 susceptible sheep. Adults emerging from the same batch of larvae were also infective to 3/3 susceptible sheep when they had the infection during their larval feeding. Transmission of T. lestoquardi to sheep was confirmed through clinical monitoring, examination of blood and lymph node biopsy smears, serology using indirect immunoflourescent test, and molecular using polymerase chain reaction technique.

A loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay was developed for the diagnosis of Theileria lestoquardi infection. The primers were designed based on the clone-5 sequence of T. lestoquardi. The specificity and sensitivity of the assay were established. Analysis of the specificity showed that the selected LAMP primers amplified the target sequence from T. lestoquardi DNA successfully, while no amplification was seen with DNA from Theileria annulata, Theileria ovis, Babesia ovis, Anaplasma ovis, or ovine genomic DNA. The specificity of the LAMP product was further confirmed by restriction digestion and sequencing. The sensitivity of the LAMP assay was analyzed in comparison to PCR resulting in a detection limit of 10 fg/μl of plasmid DNA containing the clone-5 sequence. The suitability for utilizing the LAMP assay in the field for the diagnosis of T. lestoquardi infection was tested on 100 field samples collected in Sudan and compared with results obtained by PCR. The relative specificity and sensitivity of the established LAMP assay was determined to be 92.1% and 87.5%, respectively, indicating that it may be regarded as an alternative molecular diagnostic tool to PCR which could be used for epidemiological surveys on T. lestoquardi infection.

An outbreak of malignant ovine theileriosis among goats was confirmed and documented. In this outbreak, 16 out of 22 (72.7%) goats died within 4 days showing clinical signs of malignant ovine theileriosis as well as in the postmortem findings. The goats were reared in a mixed flock with sheep in Atbara Town, Northern Sudan. The infection was detected microscopically and confirmed serologically by IFA test and molecularly by PCR technique using specific primer for Theileria lestoquardi. Hyalomma anatolicum was the most prevalent (dominant) tick species found in the farm. It is recommended to undertake future research on the role of goats on the epidemiology of malignant ovine theileriosis.

An ELISA based on a recombinant Theileria annulata surface protein (TaSP) was evaluated for detection of antibodies in sera from cattle exposed to tropical theileriosis in Sudan. The reference positive samples, used in this study, were from Theileria-infected populations and consisted of 80 cattle from an endemic area in Khartoum State, with high antibody titers in the indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT). The reference negative samples were taken from non-exposed populations and consisted of 120 cattle maintained under strict tick control at a commercial farm in Sudan. The cut-off value determined by Two-Graph Receiver-Operating Characteristic (TG-ROC) curves was set at 31.6%, based on the positive reference samples. Further diagnostic validation was performed, which consisted of the measurement of the area under the ROC (AUC) and by valid range proportion (VRP), which was 0.97 and 0.98 for the cut-off, respectively. There were no cross-reactions with antibodies raised against Babesia spp. It is concluded that the TaSP ELISA is a useful test for the diagnosis of T. annulata infection in cattle under field conditions.

Aim: The survey was carried out to detect anti- C. burnetii antibodies in goat's sera samples in eight States in the Sudan during September 2010 – July 2011. Materials and Methods: In a preliminary study, four hundred and sixty caprine sera samples collected from eight States in the Sudan were screened for anti- Coxiella burnetii (the causative agent of Q fever) antibodies using a commercial indirect ELISA (iELISA) kit. Results: The results showed an overall prevalence rate 24.22% of Q fever antibodies. The prevalence rate of antibodies ranged from 6.7% in Kassala to 40% in South Darfur. The prevalence rates were highest in South Darfur (40%) and South Kordofan (34.7%), moderate in El Gazira (29.7%), Khartoum (29.1%), the Northern (24%) and the River Nile (20.2%) States. It was lowest in the White Nile (7.5%) and Kassala (6.7%) States. Conclusion: It could be concluded that Q fever is prevalent in goats in the Sudan. Therefore, further epizootiological investigations on Q fever in other farm animals and man at the country level is important to monitor and determine the magnitude of Q fever infection in order to estimate its economic impact on animal industry and its public health hazard in the Sudan. In addition, the impact of Q fever among shepherds should be studied. [Vet. World 2012; 5(7.000): 394-397]