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Tick-borne viruses (TBVs) capable of transmitting between ticks and hosts have been increasingly recognized as a global public health concern. In this study, Hyalomma ticks and serum samples from camels were collected using recorded sampling correlations in eastern Kenya. Viromes of pooled ticks were profiled by metagenomic sequencing, revealing a diverse community of viruses related to at least 11 families. Five highly abundant viruses, including three novel viruses (Iftin tick virus, Mbalambala tick virus [MATV], and Bangali torovirus [BanToV]) and new strains of previously identified viruses (Bole tick virus 4 [BLTV4] and Liman tick virus [LMTV]), were characterized in terms of genome sequences, organizations, and phylogeny, and their molecular prevalence was investigated in individual ticks. Moreover, viremia and antibody responses to these viruses have been investigated in camels. MATV, BLTV4, LMTV, and BanToV were identified as viral pathogens that can potentially cause zoonotic diseases. The transmission patterns of these viruses were summarized, suggesting three different types according to the sampling relationships between viral RNA-positive ticks and camels positive for viral RNA and/or antibodies. They also revealed the frequent transmission of BanToV and limited but effective transmission of other viruses between ticks and camels. Furthermore, follow-up surveys on TBVs from tick, animal, and human samples with definite sampling relationships are suggested. The findings revealed substantial threats from the emerging TBVs and may guide the prevention and control of TBV-related zoonotic diseases in Kenya and in other African countries.

The crested rat, Lophiomys imhausi, is the only mammal known to sequester plant toxins. Found in eastern Africa, this large rodent is thought to defend against predation by coating specialized hairs along its sides with cardenolide toxins from the poison arrow tree, Acokanthera schimperi. To better understand the ecology of this unusual poisonous mammal, we used camera traps, livetrapping, and captive behavioral observations, to study L. imhausi in central Kenya. Although crested rats were rarely detected with camera traps, 25 individuals were caught in live traps, with estimated densities of up to 15 rats/km2 at one of nine trapping sites. Trapping records and behavioral observations suggest that L. imhausi live in male–female pairs, with juveniles that might exhibit delayed dispersal. We observed chewing of A. schimperi and/or anointing in 10 of 22 individuals, confirming the previous poison sequestration observation. We monitored crested rat activity using cameras and found that chewing on A. schimperi and cardenolide exposure had no effect on feeding, movement, or total activity. One crested rat also fed on milkweed (Gomphocarpus physocarpus; Gentaniales: Apocynaceae), but did not anoint with this cardenolide containing plant. This observation, combined with L. imhausi’s selective use of A. schimperi, suggests the potential for use of alternative poison sources. This research provides novel insight into the ecology of L. imhausi, while also suggesting that more field observations, feeding trials, and chemical analyses are needed to understand their behavior and physiology. Furthermore, their complex social interactions, slow life history, and fragmented populations suggest that L. imhausi could be at risk of decline.

The endangered golden‐rumped sengi are found only in Arabuko‐Sokoke Forest with 395.4 km² of forest habitat, and perhaps in a few isolated forest and thicket fragments of total area less than 30 km² all within central coastal Kenya. Understanding its habitat use is an important requirement to develop better conservation measures for the species and its remaining forest habitat. A more reliable method for monitoring its status is also needed. We used the Bayesian occupancy modelling with camera trap data and habitat mapping to characterise the species habitat use in the Arabuko‐Sokoke Forest. The species uses 328 km² (95% CI: 289–364 km²) of Arabuko‐Sokoke Forest habitat, and its site use increases with distance from forest edge, with the highest site use in the Cynometra thicket (0.93; 95% CI: 0.82–1). Its use of the mixed forest habitat has been significantly reduced following years of logging of Afzelia quanzensis. We recommend the use of modelled occupancy, interpreted as the proportion of area used by the species, to monitor the species status. Occupancy models account for detection probability, and heterogeneity in site use and detection can be incorporated. Estimated territory sizes can be combined to obtain abundance estimates.

The Old World leaf-nosed bats (Hipposideridae) are aerial and gleaning insectivores that occur throughout the Paleotropics. Both their taxonomic and phylogenetic histories are confused. Until recently, the family included genera now allocated to the Rhinonycteridae and was recognized as a subfamily of Rhinolophidae. Evidence that Hipposideridae diverged from both Rhinolophidae and Rhinonycteridae in the Eocene confirmed their family rank, but their intrafamilial relationships remain poorly resolved. We examined genetic variation in the Afrotropical hipposiderids Doryrhina, Hipposideros, and Macronycteris using relatively dense taxon-sampling throughout East Africa and neighboring regions. Variation in both mitochondrial (cyt-b) and four nuclear intron sequences (ACOX2, COPS, ROGDI, STAT5) were analyzed using both maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. We used intron sequences and the lineage delimitation method BPP—a multilocus, multi-species coalescent approach—on supported mitochondrial clades to identify those acting as independent evolutionary lineages. The program StarBEAST was used on the intron sequences to produce a species tree of the sampled Afrotropical hipposiderids. All genetic analyses strongly support generic monophyly, with Doryrhina and Macronycteris as Afrotropical sister genera distinct from a Paleotropical Hipposideros; mitochondrial analyses interpose the genera Aselliscus, Coelops, and Asellia between these clades. Mitochondrial analyses also suggest at least two separate colonizations of Africa by Asian groups of Hipposideros, but the actual number and direction of faunal interchanges will hinge on placement of the unsampled African-Arabian species H. megalotis. Mitochondrial sequences further identify a large number of geographically structured clades within species of all three genera. However, in sharp contrast to this pattern, the four nuclear introns fail to distinguish many of these groups and their geographic structuring disappears. Various distinctive mitochondrial clades are consolidated in the intron-based gene trees and delimitation analyses, calling into question their evolutionary independence or else indicating their very recent divergence. At the same time, there is now compelling genetic evidence in both mitochondrial and nuclear sequences for several additional unnamed species among the Afrotropical Hipposideros. Conflicting appraisals of differentiation among the Afrotropical hipposiderids based on mitochondrial and nuclear loci must be adjudicated by large-scale integrative analyses of echolocation calls, quantitative morphology, and geometric morphometrics. Integrative analyses will also help to resolve the challenging taxonomic issues posed by the diversification of the many lineages associated with H. caffer and H. ruber.

A new subspecies of giant sengi or elephant-shrew, first documented in 2008, is described from northern coastal Kenya. All five currently described species and most known subspecies of Rhynchocyon are compared to this new lineage. Molecular analyses using mitochondrial and nuclear markers from the single DNA sample available for the new lineage show differences from other forms and reveal a close relationship with the allopatric golden-rumped sengi R. chrysopygus (0.43% divergence at the 12S mitochondrial locus). This level of 12S divergence is similar to that between other subspecies pairs within Rhynchocyon. Based on three voucher specimens and 843 images from camera traps, the new lineage is similar to R. chrysopygus in the rufous-maroon sides and shoulders but is distinguished by the lack of the golden rump, the presence of jet-black distal rump and thighs, dark dorsal line, and a pronounced nuchal crest of hairs. Though it also shows superficial pelage similarities to two Tanzania species, R. udzungwensis and the dark coastal form of R. cirnei macrurus, the new form has differences in pelage coloration that are clearly diagnosable from all other taxa. This new lineage has an allopatric distribution to all known Rhynchocyon taxa, with the closest congener being R. chrysopygus located 140 km apart. We estimate a potential range size for the new taxon of ~1980 km2 in the Boni and Dodori National Reserves with habitat consisting of mixed thickets and dry forests. Because of its close genetic relationship with R. chrysopygus, its allopatric distribution, and divergent coloration, the new subspecies is designated Rhynchocyon chrysopygus mandelai. The previously described populations of R. chrysopygus from southern coastal Kenya are now designated R. chrysopygus chrysopygus. As the current severe political insecurity in the area threatens the new taxon, we hope that its description will help establish immediate conservation priorities and action for the subspecies and its habitat.

Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a tick-borne zoonotic disease, endemic in Africa, with a high case fatality rate. There is no efficient treatment or licensed vaccine. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of CCHFV in cattle in extensive grazing systems (both pastoralism and ranching) within the Maasai Mara ecosystem, Nanyuki, and the Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Kenya. We conducted a seroepidemiological study of the sera of 148 cattle from 18 households from the three ecosystems in 2014, 2016, and 2019. Sera from 23 sheep and 17 goats were also obtained from the same households during the same period. Sera were analyzed for the presence of antibodies to CCHFV using the commercially available double-antigen ELISA kit. Overall, 31.5% CCHFV seropositivity was observed. The prevalence of CCHF was analyzed using a multiple logistic mixed model with main predictors. Risk factors associated with exposure to CCHFV were age (p = 0.000) and season (p = 0.007). Our findings suggest exposure to CCHFV and point to cattle as likely reservoirs of CCHFV in Kenya. The findings might play a role in providing better insights into disease risk and dynamics where analysis of tick populations in these regions should be further investigated.

Newcastle disease (ND) causes significant economic losses in the poultry industry in developing countries. In Kenya, despite rampant annual ND outbreaks, implementation of control strategies is hampered by a lack of adequate knowledge on the circulating and outbreak causing-NDV strains. This study reports the first complete genome sequences of NDV from backyard chicken in Kenya. The results showed that all three isolates are virulent, as assessed by the mean death time (MDT) and intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI) in specific antibody negative (SAN) embryonated eggs and 10-day-old chickens, respectively. Also, the polybasic amino acid sequence at the fusion-protein cleavage site had the motif 112RRQKRFV118. Histopathological findings in four-week-old SPF chicken challenged with the NDV isolates KE001, KE0811, and KE0698 showed multiple organ involvement at five days after infection with severe effects seen in lymphoid tissues and blood vessels. Analysis of genome sequences obtained from the three isolates showed that they were 15192 base pair (bp) in length and had genomic features consistent with other NDV strains, the functional sites within the coding sequence being highly conserved in the sequence of the three isolates. Amino acid residues and substitutions in the structural proteins of the three isolates were similar to the newly isolated Tanzanian NDV strain (Mbeya/MT15). A similarity matrix showed a high similarity of the isolates to NDV strains of class II genotype V (89–90%) and subgenotype Vd (95–97%). Phylogenetic analysis confirmed that the three isolates are closely related to NDV genotype V strains but form a distinct cluster together with NDV strains from the East African countries of Uganda and Tanzania to form the newly characterized subgenotype Vd. Our study provides the first description of the genomic and pathological characteristics of NDV of subgenotype Vd and lays a baseline in understanding the evolutionary dynamics of NDV and, in particular, Genotype V. This information will be useful in the development of specific markers for detection of viruses of genotype V and generation of genotype matched vaccines.

Newcastle disease (ND) is a serious disease of poultry that causes significant economic losses. Despite rampant ND outbreaks that occur annually in Kenya, the information about the NDV circulating in Kenya is still scarce. We report the first countrywide study of NDV in Kenya. Our study is aimed at evaluating the genetic characteristics of Newcastle disease viruses obtained from backyard poultry in farms and live bird markets in different regions of Kenya. We sequenced and analyzed fusion (F) protein gene, including the cleavage site, of the obtained viruses. We aligned and compared study sequences with representative NDV of different genotypes from GenBank. The fusion protein cleavage site of all the study sequences had the motif 112RRQKRFV118 indicating their velogenic nature. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the NDV from various sites in Kenya was highly similar genetically and that it clustered together with NDV of genotype V. The study samples were 96% similar to previous Ugandan and Kenyan viruses grouped in subgenotype Vd This study points to possible circulation of NDV of similar genetic characteristics between backyard poultry farms and live bird markets in Kenya. The study also suggests the possible spread of velogenic NDV between Kenya and Uganda possibly through cross-border live bird trade. Our study provides baseline information on the genetic characteristics of NDV circulating in the Kenyan poultry population. This highlights the need for the ND control programmes to place more stringent measures on cross-border trade of live bird markets and poultry products to prevent the introduction of new strains of NDV that would otherwise be more difficult to control.

This study was carried out to identify specific mosquitocidal Bacillus species and related genera for future development of biopesticides in local mosquito control program in Kenya. Bacterial isolation was conducted from 100 soil samples through pasteurization method and preliminary identification conducted through phenotypical analysis. Toxicity analysis was performed through bioassays and lethal concentrations (LC) were determined using probit analysis. Toxic isolates were further identified through analysis of the 16s rRNA and screening of toxin genes through PCR. Expression of toxin proteins was performed using SDS-PAGE. Out of 453 isolates, 7 of them were found to yield highly potent toxicity (>50% mortality) against Culex quinquefasciatus during the initial toxicity assays. Among them, two isolates KDHa3 and SKDHb5, with LC50 values of 0.007mg/L and 0.008mg/L, respectively, were the most toxic against the target. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16s rRNA showed high homology to Lysinibacillus sphaericus (six isolates) and Bacillus thuringiensis (one isolate). Various toxin genes encoding BinA, BinB, Mtx (1, 2 and 3), Cry48A, Cry49A, Cry4A, Cry11A and Cyt1A were detected among the isolates. The protein profiles using SDS-PAGE were consistent with the standard strains Lysinibacillus sphaericus C3-41 and B. thuringiensis var. israelensis. Native toxic Bacillus species and related genera were identified with this study being the first to report highly toxic strains of L. sphaericus and B. thuringiensis strains from Kenyan soil samples. Key words: Bacillus species, Bacillus thuringiensis, Culex quinquefasciatus, Entomopathogenic, Lysinibacillus sphaericus, toxin.

This is the first country-wide surveillance of bat-borne viruses in Kenya spanning from 2012–2015 covering sites perceived to have medium to high level bat-human interaction. The objective of this surveillance study was to apply a non-invasive approach using fresh feces to detect viruses circulating within the diverse species of Kenyan bats. We screened for both DNA and RNA viruses; specifically, astroviruses (AstVs), adenoviruses (ADVs), caliciviruses (CalVs), coronaviruses (CoVs), flaviviruses, filoviruses, paramyxoviruses (PMVs), polyomaviruses (PYVs) and rotaviruses. We used family-specific primers, amplicon sequencing and further characterization by phylogenetic analysis. Except for filoviruses, eight virus families were detected with varying distributions and positive rates across the five regions (former provinces) studied. AstVs (12.83%), CoVs (3.97%), PMV (2.4%), ADV (2.26%), PYV (1.65%), CalVs (0.29%), rotavirus (0.19%) and flavivirus (0.19%). Novel CalVs were detected in Rousettus aegyptiacus and Mops condylurus while novel Rotavirus-A-related viruses were detected in Taphozous bats and R. aegyptiacus. The two Rotavirus A (RVA) strains detected were highly related to human strains with VP6 genotypes I2 and I16. Genotype I16 has previously been assigned to human RVA-strain B10 from Kenya only, which raises public health concern, particularly considering increased human-bat interaction. Additionally, 229E-like bat CoVs were detected in samples originating from Hipposideros bats roosting in sites with high human activity. Our findings confirm the presence of diverse viruses in Kenyan bats while providing extended knowledge on bat virus distribution. The detection of viruses highly related to human strains and hence of public health concern, underscores the importance of continuous surveillance.

The majority of emerging and reemerging zoonotic viral pathogens are RNA viruses. Pathogen discovery programs of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) in wildlife have implicated rodents and shrews as hosts of diverse human pathogens, such as hantaviruses, arenaviruses, paramyxoviruses, etc. Despite these threats, little is known about the diversity of viruses circulating among rodents and shrews in Kenya, meaning the risk of infectious disease outbreak from these small mammals could be oblivious. This study reports the first surveillance toward understanding the diversity of RNA viruses carried by rodents and shrews in areas of high-potential contact with humans in Kenya through molecular detection. A total of 617 samples comprising fecal, urine, and tissues from 138 rodents and 5 shrews were screened for eight different families of viruses using RT-PCR assays. The results highlight the presence of diverse astroviruses, paramyxoviruses, hepeviruses, and arenavirus, circulating in both wild and synanthropic Kenyan rodents and shrews. Most of the viruses detected in this study are novel strains and some belong to the families that contain important human viral pathogens. Notably, a novel arenavirus was detected in Grammomys macmillani, a rodent species newly identified to harbor arenavirus, and it potentially represent a novel arenavirus species. Our findings demonstrate the need for continued pathogen surveillance among these small mammals as well as among the vulnerable and exposed livestock and humans. This would help in development and implementation of effective preventive and control strategies on EIDs in countries with rich wildlife biodiversity like Kenya.

Heliosciurus rufobrachium (Waterhouse, 1842), one of six species of Heliosciurus, is a sciurid commonly called red-legged sun squirrel. It is a medium-sized diurnally adapted tree squirrel occurring at ground-level to upper heights of the canopy of mature forests. It ranges from the west coast of Africa to Garissa County, Kenya. Adapted to an arboreal life, its frugivorous diet makes it a seed disperser for forest plants. In portions of West Africa, it serves as a source of bushmeat and it is a reservoir for human monkey-pox virus and Trypanosoma brucei, which causes African sleeping sickness. H. rufobrachium is listed as “Least Concern” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

There are two PFS for this article, one is the original article and the other is an Erratum specifying the errors in the original article. In comparison to other ecosystems in east Africa, the biodiversity of the coastal forests of Kenya’s northern coastline is poorly documented, even in the case of large terrestrial mammals. In response to this, we undertook a systematic survey of the Boni-Dodori forests using four camera trap grids with camera spacing of 2 km covering 300 km 2 over 7020 camera trap days. We recorded 37 mammal species and derived camera trap rates and estimated occupancy for 31 medium-to-large terrestrial species, some of which represent range extensions. Remarkably, the critically endangered Aders’ duiker was the most frequently recorded species. A distinctive form of giant sengi and the vulnerable Sokoke bushy-tailed mongoose were also widely distributed and relatively abundant. Other significant records of threatened species included African wild dog, African lion and Pousargues’s monkey. Species richness and relative abundance of all species were higher than that recorded for Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Kenya’s only other large coastal forest, using the same camera trap survey protocol. Keywords : Boni-Dodori forest, coastal forest, camera trapping, mammals, species richness, trap rates, occupancy

The biodiversity of northern coastal Kenya, east of the Tana River, is poorlyunderstood because security problems and poor infrastructure have discouraged accessto the area. However, the wooded areas in the region have great potential forharbouring endemic and rare species, including sengis or elephant-shrews (orderMacroscelidea), especially giant sengis in the genus Rhynchocyon. Based on extensivecamera-trap surveys of the Boni-Dodori forest, east of the Tana River near theSomalia border, and the Arabuko-Sokoke forest west of the Tana River, the goldenrumpedsengi Rhynchocyon chrysopygus appears to be limited to the Arabuko-Sokokearea, while the giant sengi in the Boni-Dodori forest is different. The Boni-Dodoriforest, the largest Kenyan coastal forest, with a potential forest and thicket area of atleast 3000 km2 is likely to hold a significant number of Rhynchocyon, making it veryimportant to sengi conservation. The study generated over 2700 images of giant sengiand 32 000 camera-trap images of soft-furred sengi in a total surveyed area ofapproximately 300 km2 providing the first detailed 24-hour behaviour data for thespecies. The circadian patterns have confirmed R. chrysopygus and Boni Rhynchocyonto be strictly diurnal while the soft-furred sengi were mostly nocturnal. Occupancy forRhynchocyon was over 80 percent for both the Boni forest thicket and Arabuko-Sokoke Cynometra forest thicket. Occupancy and trapping rates for the soft-furred sengi were significantly higher for the Arabuko-Sokoke forest than the Boni-Dodori forest. It was not possible in the camera trap images to reliably differentiate between the two soft-furred sengi species, four-toed sengi Petrodromus tetradactylus and rufous sengi Elephantulus rufescens, known to occur in the area.Keywords: Macroscelidea, elephant-shrew, Rhynchocyon, abundance, distribution,activity pattern

Despite the established importance of rodents as reservoirs of vector-borne zoonoses in East Africa, there is relatively limited information regarding the infestation parameters and host associations of ectoparasites that vector many such pathogens among small mammals in this region. Between 2009 and 2013, small mammals were live-trapped in the semiarid savanna of Kenya. A subset of these individual hosts, including 20 distinct host taxa, was examined for ectoparasites, which were identified to species. Species of fleas, ticks, mites, and sucking lice were recorded. Based on these data, we calculated host-specific infestation parameters, documented host preferences among ectoparasites, conducted a rarefaction analysis and extrapolation to determine if ectoparasites were adequately sampled, and assessed nestedness for fleas to understand how pathogens might spread in this system. We found that the flea community structure was significantly nested. Understanding the ectoparasite network structure may have significant human relevance, as at least seven of the ectoparasite species collected are known vectors of pathogens of medical importance in the region, including Yersinia pestis, Rickettsia spp., and Theileria parva, the causative agents of plague, spotted fevers and other rickettsial illnesses in humans, and theileriosis, respectively.

In the last decade, virus hunting and discovery has gained pace. This achievement has been driven by three major factors: (a) advancements in sequencing technologies, (b) scaled-up routine arbovirus surveillance strategies, and (c) the "hunt" for emerging pathogens and novel viruses. Many novel viruses have been discovered from a myriad of hosts, vectors, and environmental samples. To help promote understanding of the global diversity and distribution of mosquito-associated viruses and facilitate future studies, we review mosquito-associated viruses discovered between years 2007 and 2017, across the world. In the analyzed period, novel mosquito-associated viruses belonging to 25 families and a general group of unclassified viruses were categorized. The top three discovered novel mosquito-associated viruses belonged to families Flaviviridae (n=32), Rhabdoviridae (n=16), and Peribunyaviridae (n=14). Also, 67 unclassified viruses were reported. Majority of these novel viruses were identified from Culex spp, Anopheles spp, Aedes spp, and Mansonia spp mosquitoes, respectively. Notably, the number of these discovered novels is not representative of intercontinental virus diversity but rather is influenced by the number of studies done in the study period. Some of these newly discovered mosquito-associated viruses have medical significance, either directly or indirectly. For instance, in the study period, 14 novel mosquito-borne viruses that infect mammalian cells in vitro were reported. These viruses pose a danger to the global health security on emerging viral diseases. On the other hand, some of the newly discovered insect specific viruses described herein have potential application as future biocontrol and vaccine agents against known pathogenic arboviruses. Overall, this review outlines the crucial role played by mosquitoes as viral vectors in the global virosphere.

Many blood-feeding arthropods are known vectors of viruses that are a source of unprecedented global health concern. Mosquitoes are an integral part of these arthropod vectors. Advancements in next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics has expanded our knowledge on the richness of viruses harbored by arthropods. In the present study, we applied a metagenomic approach to determine the intercontinental virome diversity of Culex quinquefasciatus and Culex tritaeniorhynchus in Kwale, Kenya and provinces of Hubei and Yunnan in China. Our results showed that viromes from the three locations were strikingly diverse and comprised 30 virus families specific to vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, and protozoa as well as unclassified group of viruses. Though sampled at different times, both Kwale and Hubei mosquito viromes were dominated by vertebrate viruses, in contrast to the Yunnan mosquito virome, which was dominated by insect-specific viruses. However, each virome was unique in terms of virus proportions partly influenced by type of ingested meals (blood, nectar, plant sap, environment substrates). The dominant vertebrate virus family in the Kwale virome was Papillomaviridae (57%) while in Hubei it was Herpesviridae (30%) and the Yunnan virome was dominated by an unclassified viruses group (27%). Given that insect-specific viruses occur naturally in their hosts, they should be the basis for defining the viromes. Hence, the dominant insect-specific viruses in Kwale, Hubei, and Yunnan were Baculoviridae, Nimaviridae and Iflaviridae, respectively. Our study is preliminary but contributes to growing and much needed knowledge, as mosquito viromes could be manipulated to prevent and control pathogenic arboviruses.

As part of a larger survey for detection of pathogens among wildlife in sub-Saharan Africa conducted during 2007-2012, multiple diverse paramyxovirus sequences were detected in renal tissues of bats. Phylogenetic analysis supports the presence of at least 2 major viral lineages and suggests that paramyxoviruses are strongly associated with several bat genera.

We screened 217 bats of at least 20 species from 17 locations in Kenya during July and August of 2006 for the presence of adenovirus, rhabdovirus, and paramyxovirus nucleic acids using generic reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and PCR assays. Of 217 bat fecal swabs examined, 4 bats were adenovirus DNA-positive, 11 bats were paramyxovirus RNA-positive, and 2 bats were rhabdovirus RNA-positive. Three bats were coinfected by two different viruses. By sequence comparison and phylogenetic analysis, the Kenya bat paramyxoviruses and rhabdoviruses from this study may represent novel viral lineages within their respective families; the Kenya bat adenoviruses could not be confirmed as novel, because the same region sequences from other known bat adenovirus genomes for comparison were lacking. Our study adds to previous evidence that bats carry diverse, potentially zoonotic viruses and may be coinfected with more than one virus.

A new species of African wood mouse (Hylomyscus) is described from the western Kenya region. Previous studies have hypothesized that populations of Hylomyscus from this region may be assignable to either H. vulcanorum or H. cf. anselli. We compared 3 populations of Hylomyscus from western Kenyan montane forests to sister taxa from the Hylomyscus denniae group on the basis of morphology, morphometrics, mitochondrial DNA gene trees, multilocus species trees, and coalescent-based species delimitation to clarify relationships within these clades. Our results were congruent across data sets in support of this new species as sister to H. anselli and reproductively isolated from H. endorobae on the Mau Escarpment of Kenya where the 2 taxa are sympatric and syntopic. Lineages within the H. anselli group differ by 3.2–7.4% in (corrected) cytochrome-b sequences. Phylogeographic analysis of Hylomyscus n. sp. suggests strong population or range expansion, or both, since the last glacial maxima. A dated multilocus species tree places divergence of Hylomyscus n. sp. from H. anselli during the middle Pleistocene and the H. anselli group from the H. denniae group during the late Miocene to early Pliocene. This species is known from protected sites on Mt. Elgon, as well as unprotected sites within the Mau Escarpment and Cherangani Hills where extensive human habitat disturbance warrants conservation attention.

The Sokoke dog or bushy-tailed mongoose Bdeogale omnivora is poorly known and considered to be endemic to the East African coastal forests. Systematic camera trap surveys, comprising 9229 camera trap days on grids at six study sites, were used to determine the distribution and relative abundance of the Sokoke bushy-tailed mongoose in the two largest Kenyan coastal forests: Boni-Dodori Forest Complex (ca. 4000 km²); and Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve (416 km²). This species was captured in all surveyed forests with significantly more detections in Brachystegia woodland habitat ( ca . 71 km 2 ) of Arabuko-Sokoke and the Boni forest sectors (ca. 2000 km 2 ) of the Boni-Dodori Forest Complex. Boni-Dodori Forest Complex, with an estimated occupancy of over 60% for this species, holds a significant population. The study generated over 1000 images of the Sokoke bushy-tailed mongoose in a total surveyed area of approximately 500 km 2 providing the first 24-hour activity data for the species. The circadian patterns confirm this species to be strictly nocturnal. This study strongly recommends that its Red List status remains ‘Vulnerable’. The few remaining coastal forests continue to face human pressure. Recent proposals to find and extract hydrocarbons from under the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, and the planned major development close to Boni-Dodori Forest Complex, raise serious conservation concerns for this exceptionally biodiverse ecosystem. Keywords: Arabuko-Sokoke forest, Boni forest, Dodori forest, camera trap, status, Bdeogale omnivora

Kenya is among the most affected tropical countries with pathogen transmitting Culicidae vectors. For decades, insect vectors have contributed to the emergence and distribution of viral and parasitic pathogens. Outbreaks and diseases have a great impact on a country’s economy, as resources that would otherwise be used for developmental projects are redirected to curb hospitalization cases and manage outbreaks. Infected invasive mosquito species have been shown to increasingly cross both local and global boarders due to the presence of increased environmental changes, trade, and tourism. In Kenya, there have been several mosquito-borne disease outbreaks such as the recent outbreaks along the coast of Kenya, involving chikungunya and dengue. This certainly calls for the implementation of strategies aimed at strengthening integrated vector management programs. In this review, we look at mosquitoes of public health concern in Kenya, while highlighting the pathogens they have been linked with over the years and across various regions. In addition, the major strategies that have previously been used in mosquito control and what more could be done to reduce or combat the menace caused by these hematophagous vectors are presented.

Zoonotic and vector-borne pathogens have comprised a significant component of emerging human infections in recent decades, and bats are increasingly recognized as reservoirs for many of these disease agents. To identify novel pathogens associated with bats, we screened tissues of bats collected in Kenya. Virus isolates were identified by next generation sequencing of viral nucleic acid preparations from the infected cell culture supernatant and characterized. Here we report the identification of Fikirini rhabdovirus, a novel rhabdovirus isolated from a bat, Hipposideros vittatus, captured along the Kenyan coast.

Polyomaviruses (PyVs) have been identified in a wide range of avian and mammalian species. However, little is known about their occurrence, genetic diversity and evolutionary history in bats, even though bats are important reservoirs for many emerging viral pathogens. This study screened 380 specimens from 35 bat species from Kenya and Guatemala for the presence of PyVs by semi-nested pan-PyV PCR assays. PyV DNA was detected in 24 of the 380 bat specimens. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the bat PyV sequences formed 12 distinct lineages. Full-genome sequences were obtained for seven representative lineages and possessed similar genomic features to known PyVs. Strikingly, this evolutionary analysis revealed that the bat PyVs were paraphyletic, suggestive of multiple species jumps between bats and other mammalian species, such that the theory of virus–host co-divergence for mammalian PyVs as a whole could be rejected. In addition, evidence was found for strong heterogeneity in evolutionary rate and potential recombination in a number of PyV complete genomes, which complicates both phylogenetic analysis and virus classification. In summary, this study revealed that bats are important reservoirs of PyVs and that these viruses have a complex evolutionary history.

Domestic dogs have an ancient origin and a long history in Africa. Nevertheless, the timing and sources of their introduction into Africa remain enigmatic. Herein, we analyse variation in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) D-loop sequences from 345 Nigerian and 37 Kenyan village dogs plus 1530 published sequences of dogs from other parts of Africa, Europe and West Asia. All Kenyan dogs can be assigned to one of three haplogroups (matrilines; clades): A, B, and C, while Nigerian dogs can be assigned to one of four haplogroups A, B, C, and D. None of the African dogs exhibits a matrilineal contribution from the African wolf (Canis lupus lupaster). The genetic signal of a recent demographic expansion is detected in Nigerian dogs from West Africa. The analyses of mitochondrial genomes reveal a maternal genetic link between modern West African and North European dogs indicated by sub-haplogroup D1 (but not the entire haplogroup D) coalescing around 12,000 years ago. Incorporating molecular anthropological evidence, we propose that sub-haplogroup D1 in West African dogs could be traced back to the late-glacial dispersals, potentially associated with human hunter-gatherer migration from southwestern Europe.

Aders’ duiker Cephalophus adersi is a small antelope endemic to the coastal forests of east Africa. Threatened by habitat loss and hunting, the species is categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Until recently Aders’ duiker was known to persist only on Zanzibar, Tanzania, and in the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest National Reserve, Kenya. However, in 2004 a sighting of a single individual was reported from the Dodori forest in northern coastal Kenya, raising the possibility that the species survives elsewhere. Subsequently, an opportunistic camera-trap survey was conducted in September and October 2008 to establish the occurrence of Aders’ duiker in Kenyan coastal forests north of the Tana River. One hundred and fifty six images of Aders’ duikers were obtained from 12 of 28 camera-trap sites (46 of 358 camera-trap days), confirming the existence of a population of Aders’ duiker in the Boni–Dodori forest both inside and outside the National Reserves. In addition, we sighted individuals of the species on three occasions. The relatively high encounter rates per unit effort compared to similar data from Arabuko-Sokoke forest suggest the Boni–Dodori population is significant. Initial surveys of the local Awer community revealed that Aders’ duiker is well known by the name guno. These findings significantly improve the conservation prospects for Aders’ duiker and highlight the need for greater research and management efforts in the poorly known Boni–Dodori forest.

TOC summary: Bats may be reservoirs of zoonotic viruses that threaten human health., Bats are known reservoirs of viral zoonoses. We report genetic characterization of a bat rotavirus (Bat/KE4852/07) detected in the feces of a straw-colored fruit bat (Eidolon helvum). Six bat rotavirus genes (viral protein [VP] 2, VP6, VP7, nonstructural protein [NSP] 2, NSP3, and NSP5) shared ancestry with other mammalian rotaviruses but were distantly related. The VP4 gene was nearly identical to that of human P[6] rotavirus strains, and the NSP4 gene was closely related to those of previously described mammalian rotaviruses, including human strains. Analysis of partial sequence of the VP1 gene indicated that it was distinct from cognate genes of other rotaviruses. No sequences were obtained for the VP3 and NSP1 genes of the bat rotavirus. This rotavirus was designated G25-P[6]-I15-R8(provisional)-C8-Mx-Ax-N8-T11-E2-H10. Results suggest that several reassortment events have occurred between human, animal, and bat rotaviruses. Several additional rotavirus strains were detected in bats.

We report the presence and diversity of Bartonella spp. in bats of 13 insectivorous and frugivorous species collected from various locations across Kenya. Bartonella isolates were obtained from 23 Eidolon helvum, 22 Rousettus aegyptiacus, 4 Coleura afra, 7 Triaenops persicus, 1 Hipposideros commersoni, and 49 Miniopterus spp. bats. Sequence analysis of the citrate synthase gene from the obtained isolates showed a wide assortment of Bartonella strains. Phylogenetically, isolates clustered in specific host bat species. All isolates from R. aegyptiacus, C. afra, and T. persicus bats clustered in separate monophyletic groups. In contrast, E. helvum and Miniopterus spp. bats harbored strains that clustered in several groups. Further investigation is needed to determine whether these agents are responsible for human illnesses in the region.

During 2009, 616 bats representing at least 22 species were collected from 10 locations throughout Kenya. A new lyssavirus, named Shimoni bat virus (SHIBV), was isolated from the brain of a dead Commerson's leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros commersoni), found in a cave in the coastal region of Kenya. Genetic distances and phylogenetic reconstructions, implemented for each gene and for the concatenated alignment of all five structural genes (N, P, M, G and L), demonstrated that SHIBV cannot be identified with any of the existing species, but rather should be considered an independent species within phylogroup II of the Lyssavirus genus, most similar to Lagos bat virus (LBV). Antigenic reaction patterns with anti-nucleocapsid monoclonal antibodies corroborated these distinctions. In addition, new data on the diversity of LBV suggests that this species may be subdivided quantitatively into three separate genotypes. However, the identity values alone are not considered sufficient criteria for demarcation of new species within LBV.

Introduction: Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonotic disease with wide geographical spread. Its presence in Kenya and some of the neighbouring countries has been documented before and it is thought to contribute significantly to the number of febrile cases in human populations and abortions in livestock. This study investigated Leptospira spp. presence in rodents collected in both a pastoral and irrigated region of Kenya. Materials and methods: Blood and kidney samples were screened for leptospiral DNA by PCR, and ELISA was used to detect antibodies in tissue fluid. Results and discussion: Almost 42% (28/67) of the rodents were found to be PCR positive and 25% (14/56) by the ELISA test. Focus group discussions revealed that the local population perceived an increase in the rodent population and febrile illnesses not responsive to malarial treatment, a possible attestation of importance of non-malarial acute febrile illnesses such as leptospirosis in the communities. Conclusion: While the study was small, it indicated that rodents could play an important role as reservoir hosts for the bacteria in these areas.

During lyssavirus surveillance, 1,221 bats of at least 30 species were collected from 25 locations in Kenya. One isolate of Lagos bat virus (LBV) was obtained from a dead Eidolon helvum fruit bat. The virus was most similar phylogenetically to LBV isolates from Senegal (1985) and from France (imported from Togo or Egypt; 1999), sharing with these viruses 100% nucleoprotein identity and 99.8 to 100% glycoprotein identity. This genome conservancy across space and time suggests that LBV is well adapted to its natural host species and that populations of reservoir hosts in eastern and western Africa have sufficient interactions to share pathogens. High virus concentrations, in addition to being detected in the brain, were detected in the salivary glands and tongue and in an oral swab, suggesting that LBV is transmitted in the saliva. In other extraneural organs, the virus was generally associated with innervations and ganglia. The presence of infectious virus in the reproductive tract and in a vaginal swab implies an alternative opportunity for transmission. The isolate was pathogenic for laboratory mice by the intracerebral and intramuscular routes. Serologic screening demonstrated the presence of LBV-neutralizing antibodies in E. helvum and Rousettus aegyptiacus fruit bats. In different colonies the seroprevalence ranged from 40 to 67% and 29 to 46% for E. helvum and R. aegyptiacus , respectively. Nested reverse transcription-PCR did not reveal the presence of viral RNA in oral swabs of bats in the absence of brain infection. Several large bat roosts were identified in areas of dense human populations, raising public health concerns for the potential of lyssavirus infection.

The Eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot (EABH) has the highest concentration of biodiversity in tropical Africa, yet few studies have investigated recent historical diversification processes in EABH lineages. Herein, we analyze restriction-site associated DNA-sequences (RAD-Seq) to study recent historical processes in co-distributed mouse (Hylomyscus) and shrew (Sylvisorex) species complexes, with an aim to better determine how historical paleoenvironmental processes might have contributed to the EABH’s high diversity. We analyzed complete SNP matrices of > 50,000 RAD loci to delineate populations, reconstruct the history of isolation and admixture, and discover geographic patterns of genetic partitioning. These analyses demonstrate that persistently unsuitable habitat may have isolated multiple populations distributed across montane habitat islands in the Itombwe Massif and Albertine Rift to the west as well as Mt Elgon and Kenyan Highlands to the east. We detected low genetic diversity in Kenyan Highland populations of both genera, consistent with smaller historical population sizes in this region. We additionally tested predictions that Albertine Rift populations are older and more persistently isolated compared to the Kenyan Highlands. Phylogenetic analyses support greater historical isolation among Albertine Rift populations of both shrews and mice compared to the Kenyan Highlands and suggest that there are genetically isolated populations from both focal genera in the Itombwe Massif, Democratic Republic of Congo. The Albertine Rift ecoregion has the highest mammalian tropical forest species richness per unit area on earth. Our results clearly support accelerating efforts to conserve this diversity.

Surveys in the forests of the Taita Hills yielded a new primate record for Kenya. Based on direct observations and tape recordings of its vocalizations, this primate is identified as a dwarf galago Galagoides sp. Identification to the species level is not possible at this stage as molecular data are not available, and more morphological and vocalization data are required. The vocal repertoire of the “Taita mountain dwarf galago” is qualitatively different from other known populations of dwarf galagos, including the mountain dwarf galago Galagoides orinus and the Zanzibar galago Galagoides zanzibaricus cocos. The Taita mountain dwarf galago might represent a hitherto unknown subspecies, or even species. The possible identity of the Taita mountain dwarf galago is briefly discussed in terms of biogeography. We also confirmed the presence of Garnett's small-eared galago Otolemur garnettii lasiotis and present biometric measurements from trapped animals.

To the Editor: Lake Victoria Marburgvirus (MARV) causes severe hemorrhagic fever with a high case-fatality rate in humans. Index cases occurred in Europe during 1967 among laboratory workers who handled tissues and blood samples of nonhuman primates from Africa (1). Thereafter, MARV was reported throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Most outbreaks in humans were associated with visits to caves and mines (2–6). In Kenya, human cases of MARV infection were reported in 1980 and 1987; these occurred after visits to the Kitum Cave at Mount Elgon (7,8). MARV was detected in tissues of Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) and other bat species from the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Gabon, and Uganda (3–6). We collected bats from across Kenya during June–July 2007 within the framework of the Global Disease Detection Program, which is dedicated to investigation of emerging pathogens. Collection protocols were approved by the National Museums of Kenya and by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Atlanta, GA, USA). Blood, fecal and oral swab specimens, and selected tissue samples were collected from bats and stored on dry ice. For MARV detection, total RNA was extracted from pooled or individual liver, spleen, and lung samples from 272 bats. Nested reverse transcription–PCR (RT-PCR) with primers specific for MARV nucleoprotein gene was performed as described (5). When a band of the expected size was detected after electrophoresis on an agarose gel, the RT-PCR product was sequenced. Laboratory cross-contamination was not a concern because no work with MARV had been conducted in the facility where the examination was performed. MARV RNA was detected in pooled liver, spleen, and lung tissue of an apparently healthy, pregnant, female R. aegyptiacus bat obtained at Kitum Cave in July 2007 (Figure). A faint band was obtained only after nested RT-PCR, which suggests that the RNA load was limited. Attempts at virus isolation were not performed. Phylogenetic comparisons demonstrated that the virus (KE261, GenBank accession no. {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"GQ499199","term_id":"270686255","term_text":"GQ499199"}}GQ499199) was relatively distant from previous isolates from Kenya (Musoke and Ravn). It was similar to viruses isolated from index cases in Europe in 1967 (Popp and Ci67). This lineage also contained virus 02DRC99, which was isolated from a human in the DRC in 1999 (Appendix Figure). MARV isolates obtained from bats and humans in Uganda in 2007 belong to distinct lineages (6) (Appendix Figure). Tissues of other bats, including 75 R. aegyptiacus (29 pregnant females) from Kitum Cave and neighboring Makingeni Cave, were negative for MARV RNA. Figure Bat collection sites (open circles) and location of Kitum Cave, Kenya, where Lake Victoria Marburgvirus was detected (solid circle). Histopathologic examination of liver of the infected bat showed no lesions that could be ascribed to MARV infection, and no MARV antigens were detected by immunohistochemical analysis. Other tissues were not examined. Our results are similar to those reported from Gabon and the DRC, where MARV RNA was detected in tissues of 1.4% and 3.1% of R. aegyptiacus bats, respectively, with negative isolation attempts (3,5). A higher prevalence (5.1%) was detected in R. aegyptiacus bats from Uganda in 2007, where several MARV isolates were obtained from bats with high virus loads (6). In the DRC, MARV RNA was also detected in insectivorous bats, including 3.0% of Miniopterus inflatus and 3.6% of Rhinolophus elocuens (3,5). However, in Uganda, MARV RNA was detected in only 1 (0.2%) of 609 insectivorous bats (Hipposideros spp.) (6). To date, bats are the only wild mammals, besides nonhuman primates, in which filoviruses have been detected. Whether bats serve as principal reservoir hosts for filoviruses is unclear. The pathogenesis and clinic manifestation of filovirus infection in bats are unknown. Colonies of R. aegyptiacus bats in caves often consist of thousands of bats. The opportunity for conspecific exposure rates in such colonies is high. Therefore, bat populations should have a high seroprevalence rate for these viruses. For example, seroprevalence to lyssaviruses in some bat species that live in colonies was reported as high as 60%–70% (9). In contrast, seroprevalence of MARV-neutralizing antibodies in colonies of R. aegyptiacus bats in which PCR-positive bats were collected was only 12% (5) or as low as 2.4% (6). This low seroprevalence may be interpreted as a result of a limited spillover of MARV into bats from another source. The association of human cases of MARV with visiting caves often inhabited by R. aegyptiacus and other bat species is obvious (3,5,6). This association was reinforced by MARV infection in tourists who visited caves in Uganda (4,10). For Kenya, our finding is consistent with reported human cases tentatively associated with visiting of Kitum Cave (7,8). We do not know if MARV has persisted in this area continuously or has reemerged sporadically. Kitum Cave and other similar caves are easily accessible and frequently visited by tourists and local persons. The likelihood of MARV spillover into humans is presently limited. However, because transmission mechanisms and sources of spillover infections are unknown, public awareness must be increased and health authorities informed about the presence of MARV.

The prevalence of neutralizing antibody against West Caucasian bat virus (WCBV) in Miniopterus bats collected in Kenya ranged from 17% to 26%. Seropositive bats were detected in 4 of 5 locations sampled across the country. These findings provide evidence that WCBV, originally isolated in Europe, may emerge in other continents.

Although there are over 1,150 bat species worldwide, the diversity of viruses harbored by bats has only recently come into focus as a result of expanded wildlife surveillance. Such surveys are of importance in determining the potential for novel viruses to emerge in humans, and for optimal management of bats and their habitats. To enhance our knowledge of the viral diversity present in bats, we initially surveyed 415 sera from African and Central American bats. Unbiased high-throughput sequencing revealed the presence of a highly diverse group of bat-derived viruses related to hepaciviruses and pegiviruses within the family Flaviridae . Subsequent PCR screening of 1,258 bat specimens collected worldwide indicated the presence of these viruses also in North America and Asia. A total of 83 bat-derived viruses were identified, representing an infection rate of nearly 5%. Evolutionary analyses revealed that all known hepaciviruses and pegiviruses, including those previously documented in humans and other primates, fall within the phylogenetic diversity of the bat-derived viruses described here. The prevalence, unprecedented viral biodiversity, phylogenetic divergence, and worldwide distribution of the bat-derived viruses suggest that bats are a major and ancient natural reservoir for both hepaciviruses and pegiviruses and provide insights into the evolutionary history of hepatitis C virus and the human GB viruses.

African green monkeys (Chlorocebus) represent a widely distributed and morphologically diverse primate genus in sub-Saharan Africa. Little attention has been paid to their genetic diversity and phylogeny. Based on morphological data, six species are currently recognized, but their taxonomy remains disputed. Here, we aim to characterize the mitochondrial (mt) DNA diversity, biogeography and phylogeny of African green monkeys. We analyzed the complete mitochondrial cytochrome b gene of 126 samples using feces from wild individuals and material from zoo and museum specimens with clear geographical provenance, including several type specimens. We found evidence for nine major mtDNA clades that reflect geographic distributions rather than taxa, implying that the mtDNA diversity of African green monkeys does not conform to existing taxonomic classifications. Phylogenetic relationships among clades could not be resolved suggesting a rapid early divergence of lineages. Several discordances between mtDNA and phenotype indicate that hybridization may have occurred in contact zones among species, including the threatened Bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis). Our results provide both valuable data on African green monkeys’ genetic diversity and evolution and a basis for further molecular studies on this genus. Am. J. Primatol. 75:350-360, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Plant toxins are sequestered by many animals and the toxicity is frequently advertised by aposematic displays to deter potential predators. Such ‘unpalatability by appropriation’ is common in many invertebrate groups and also found in a few vertebrate groups. However, potentially lethal toxicity by acquisition has so far never been reported for a placental mammal. Here, we describe complex morphological structures and behaviours whereby the African crested rat,Lophiomys imhausi, acquires, dispenses and advertises deterrent toxin. Roots and bark ofAcokanthera schimperi(Apocynaceae) trees are gnawed, masticated and slavered onto highly specialized hairs that wick up the compound, to be delivered whenever the animal is bitten or mouthed by a predator. The poison is a cardenolide, closely resembling ouabain, one of the active components in a traditional African arrow poison long celebrated for its power to kill elephants.

In this study we attempted to identify whether Commerson's leaf-nosed bat (Hipposideros commersoni) is the reservoir of Shimoni bat virus (SHIBV), which was isolated from a bat of this species in 2009. An alternative explanation is that the isolation of SHIBV from H. commersoni was a result of spill-over infection from other species, particularly from the Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus), which frequently sympatrically roost with H. commersoni and are known as the reservoir of the phylogenetically related Lagos bat virus (LBV). To evaluate these hypotheses, 769 bats of at least 17 species were sampled from 18 locations across Kenya during 2009?2010. Serum samples were subjected to virus neutralization tests against SHIBV and LBV. A limited amount of cross-neutralization between LBV and SHIBV was detected. However, H. commersoni bats demonstrated greater seroprevalence to SHIBV than to LBV, and greater virus-neutralizing titers to SHIBV than to LBV, with a mean difference of 1.16 log(10) (95% confidence intervals [CI]: 0.94-1.40; p0.001). The opposite pattern was observed for sera of R. aegyptiacus bats, with a mean titer difference of 1.06 log(10) (95% CI: 0.83-1.30; p0.001). Moreover, the seroprevalence in H. commersoni to SHIBV in the cave where these bats sympatrically roosted with R. aegyptiacus (and where SHIBV was isolated in 2009) was similar to their seroprevalence to SHIBV in a distant cave where no R. aegyptiacus were present (18.9% and 25.0%, respectively). These findings suggest that H. commersoni is the host species of SHIBV. Additional surveillance is needed to better understand the ecology of this virus and the potential risks of infection to humans and other mammalian species.

The biodiversity of northern coastal Kenya is poorly understood because security problems and poor infrastructure have discouraged access to the area. However, the wooded areas in the region have great potential for harbouring unique and rare species, including sengis or elephant-shrews (Macroscelidea). Based on recent surveys of the Boni and Dodori National Reserves, which are between the Tana River and the Somali border, the ranges of the rufous sengi (Elephantulus rufescens) and four-toed sengi (Petrodromus tetradactylus) have been extended. Although the golden-rumped sengi (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus) of coastal Kenya south of the lower Tana River was assumed to occur in the Boni forest region, this now appears to be incorrect. The Rhynchocyon east of the lower Tana River is definitely not R. chrysopygus, but rather resembles taxa found hundreds of kilometres to the south. Determining the taxonomic status of what may be a new form of Rhynchocyon will require the collection of voucher specimens and DNA tissues for detailed analyses.Keywords: Boni Forest, distribution, elephant-shrew, Macroscelidea, Rhynchocyon

Diverse coronaviruses have been identified in bats from several continents but not from Africa. We identified group 1 and 2 coronaviruses in bats in Kenya, including SARS-related coronaviruses. The sequence diversity suggests that bats are well-established reservoirs for and likely sources of coronaviruses for many species, including humans.