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This article provides an outline of the classification of the kingdom Fungi (including fossil fungi. i.e. dispersed spores, mycelia, sporophores, mycorrhizas). We treat 19 phyla of fungi. These are Aphelidiomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiobolomycota, Basidiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Calcarisporiellomycota, Caulochytriomycota, Chytridiomycota, Entomophthoromycota, Entorrhizomycota, Glomeromycota, Kickxellomycota, Monoblepharomycota, Mortierellomycota, Mucoromycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Olpidiomycota, Rozellomycota and Zoopagomycota. The placement of all fungal genera is provided at the class-, order- and family-level. The described number of species per genus is also given. Notes are provided of taxa for which recent changes or disagreements have been presented. Fungus-like taxa that were traditionally treated as fungi are also incorporated in this outline (i.e. Eumycetozoa, Dictyosteliomycetes, Ceratiomyxomycetes and Myxomycetes). Four new taxa are introduced: Amblyosporida ord. nov. Neopereziida ord. nov. and Ovavesiculida ord. nov. in Rozellomycota, and Protosporangiaceae fam. nov. in Dictyosteliomycetes. Two different classifications (in outline section and in discussion) are provided for Glomeromycota and Leotiomycetes based on recent studies. The phylogenetic reconstruction of a four-gene dataset (18S and 28S rRNA, RPB1, RPB2) of 433 taxa is presented, including all currently described orders of fungi., Nalin N. Wijayawardene thanks Mushroom Research Foundation and National Science Foundation of China (No. NSFC 31950410558) for financially supporting this project. Kevin D. Hyde acknowledges the Foreign Experts Bureau of Yunnan Province, Foreign Talents Program (2018; grant no. YNZ2018002), Thailand Research grants entitled Biodiversity, phylogeny and role of fungal endophytes on above parts of Rhizophora apiculata and Nypa fruticans (grant no: RSA5980068), the future of specialist fungi in a changing climate: baseline data for generalist and specialist fungi associated with ants, Rhododendron species and Dracaena species (grant no: DBG6080013), Impact of climate change on fungal diversity and biogeography in the Greater Mekong Subregion (grant no: RDG6130001). H.T. Lumbsch thanks support by the Grainger Bioinformatics Center. E. Malosso is grateful to CAPES for financial support (grant no. 88881.062172/2014-01). B.T. Goto, G.A. Silva and K. Jobim, L.C. Maia acknowledges CNPq (Brazilian Scientific Council, grants no. 465.420/2014-1, 307.129/2015-2 and 408011/2016-5) and CAPES for support. The study was partially supported by the National Science Centre, Poland, under Grants No. 2015/17/D/NZ8/00778 and 2017/25/B/NZ8/00473 to Julia Pawłowska. The research of Martin Kukwa received support from the National Science Centre (NCN) in Poland (project no 2015/17/B/NZ8/02441). Alan J.L. Phillips acknowledges the support from UID/MULTI/04046/2019 Research Unit grant from FCT, Portugal to BioISI. H. Zhang is financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project ID: NSF 31500017). S. Boonmee would like to thank the Thailand Research Fund (Project No. TRG6180001). Dong-Qin Dai and Li-Zhou Tang would like to thank the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. NSFC 31760013, NSFC 31260087, NSFC 31460561), the Scientific Research Foundation of Yunnan Provincial Department of Education (2017ZZX186) and the Thousand Talents Plan, Youth Project of Yunnan Provinces for support. R. Phookamsak, M. Doilom, D. N. Wanasinghe, S.C. Karunarathna and J.C. Xu express sincere appreciations to Key Research Program of Frontier Sciences of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no. QYZDY-SSW-SMC014) for research financial support. R. Phookamsak thanks the Yunnan Provincial Department of Human Resources and Social Security (grant no. Y836181261), Chiang Mai University and National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) project code 31850410489 for research financial support. S.C. Kaunarathna thanks CAS President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI) for funding his postdoctoral research (No. 2018PC0006) and the National Science Foundation of China (NSFC) for funding this work under the project code 31851110759. S. Tibpromma would like to thank the International Postdoctoral Exchange Fellowship Program (number Y9180822S1), CAS President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI) (number 2020PC0009), China Postdoctoral Science Foundation and the Yunnan Human Resources, and Social Security Department Foundation for funding her postdoctoral research. Yuri S. Tokarev, Elena S. Nassonova and Irma V. Issi are indebtful to Yuliya Y. Sokolova (Institute of Cytology RAS, St. Petersbug, Russia) and Anastasia V. Simakova (Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia) for kind permission of reproduction of electron microscopy images of Metchnikovella incurvata and Crepidulospora beklemishevi, respectively. Yuri S. Tokarev and Irma V. Issi thank Russian Foundation of Basic Research, grant number 17-04-00871 (taxonomy of Rozellomycota). Elena S. Nassonova thank Russian Foundation of Basic Research, grant number 18-04-01359 (early evolution of Microsporidia, phylogeny of Metchnikovellida). Adam Flakus and Pamela Rodriguez-Flakus are greatly indebted to all staff of the Herbario Nacional de Bolivia, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz and the SERNAP (http://sernap.gob.bo), for their generous cooperation providing permits, assistance and facilities support for scientific studies. The research of AF and PRF were financially supported by the National Science Centre (NCN) in Poland (DEC-2013/11/D/NZ8/03274). Adam Flakus and Pamela Rodriguez-Flakus received additional support under statutory funds from the W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland. The authors would like to thank Yunnan Innovation Platform for Development and Utilization of Symbiotic Fungi Resources for finance support. Li-Fang Zhang would like to thank grant-in-aid from Science and Technology Department of Yunnan Province (2018FD080) for finance support. Chun-Ying Deng thanks the Biodiversity Survey and Assessment Project of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment, China (2019HJ2096001006). Yingqian Kang would like to thank Guizhou Scientific Plan Project [(2019) 2873]; Excellent Youth Talent Training Project of Guizhou Province [(2017) 5639]; Guiyang Science and Technology Project [(2017) No. 5-19]; Talent Base Project of Guizhou Province, China [FCJD2018-22]; Research Fund of Education Bureau of Guizhou Province, China [(2018) 481]. D. N. Wanasinghe would like to thank the CAS President’s International Fellowship Initiative (PIFI) for funding his postdoctoral research (number 2019PC0008), the National Science Foundation of China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences for financial support under the following grants: 41761144055, 41771063 and Y4ZK111B01. Yuri K. Novozhilov and Oleg N. Shchepin acknowledge support from the Russian Foundation of Basic Research, project 18-04-01232 А. Ivana Kušan, Neven Matočec, Armin Mešić and Zdenko Tkalčec are grateful to Croatian Science Foundation for their financial support under the project grant HRZZ-IP-2018-01-1736 (ForFungiDNA). K. Tanaka would like to thank the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS 19K06802)

Polylepis tarapacana forms one of the highest-altitude woodlands worldwide. Its populations are experiencing a decline due to unsustainable land-use practices, climate change, and fungal infection. In Sajama National Park in Bolivia, Polylepis tarapacana is affected by a disease caused by the pleosporalean fungus Leptosphaeria polylepidis, recently described in 2005. In this study, the integrative morphological and molecular analyses using sequences from multiple DNA loci showed that it belongs to the genus Paraleptosphaeria (Leptosphaeriaceae, Pleosporales). Accordingly, the appropriate new combination, Paraleptosphaeria polylepidis, is made. Pseudothecia of Pa. polylepidis were found to be overgrown by enigmatic conidiomata that were not reported in the original description of this fungus. Morphological and molecular analyses using sequences from two DNA loci revealed that they belong to an undescribed genus and species in the family Dictyosporiaceae (Pleosporales). The new generic and specific names, Sajamaea and S. mycophila, are introduced for this unusual fungus.

Neotropical mountain forests are characterized by having hyperdiverse and unusual fungi inhabiting lichens. The great majority of these lichenicolous fungi (i.e., detectable by light microscopy) remain undescribed and their phylogenetic relationships are mostly unknown. This study focuses on lichenicolous fungi inhabiting the genus Lobariella (Peltigerales), one of the most important lichen hosts in the Andean cloud forests. Based on molecular and morphological data, three new genera are introduced: Lawreyella gen. nov. (Cordieritidaceae, for Unguiculariopsis lobariella), Neobaryopsis gen. nov. (Cordycipitaceae), and Pseudodidymocyrtis gen. nov. (Didymosphaeriaceae). Nine additional new species are described (Abrothallus subhalei sp. nov., Atronectria lobariellae sp. nov., Corticifraga microspora sp. nov., Epithamnolia rugosopycnidiata sp. nov., Lichenotubeufia cryptica sp. nov., Neobaryopsis andensis sp. nov., Pseudodidymocyrtis lobariellae sp. nov., Rhagadostomella hypolobariella sp. nov., and Xylaria lichenicola sp. nov.). Phylogenetic placements of 13 lichenicolous species are reported here for Abrothallus, Arthonia, Globonectria, Lawreyella, Monodictys, Neobaryopsis, Pseudodidymocyrtis, Sclerococcum, Trichonectria and Xylaria. The name Sclerococcum ricasoliae comb. nov. is reestablished for the neotropical populations formerly named S. lobariellum (Sclerococcales). A key to sexual and asexual states of 40 species of lobariellicolous ascomycetous fungi is provided. Teleomorph-anamorph connections were established for several species using molecular methods and/or visual observations in nature. Additionally, we found that the anamorphic species Cornutispora ophiurospora inhabiting Lobariella was often accompanied by ascomata of Spirographa. Results of phylogenetic analyses, including newly generated sequences of several Cornutispora and Spirographa species inhabiting various host lichens, support the conclusion that Cornutispora is a synonym of Spirographa. Our Maximum Likelihood inference based on multiple loci show that all studied Spirographa (including Cornutispora) belong to a new lineage within Ostropales. Based on these highly supported phylogenetic placements and the distinct character states of their conidiomata, in comparison with other Lecanoromycetes, a new family is proposed – Spirographaceae fam. nov. This new lineage includes broadly distributed mycoparasites, inhabiting various lichen and fungal hosts, and representing an early diversification event preceding the lichen-forming clade of Fissurinaceae, Gomphillaceae and Graphidaceae. Two lichenicolous species, Asteroglobulus giselae and Pleoscutula arsenii, were found to be nested within the Spirographa clade, and their teleomorph-anamorph connections were confirmed based on genotypic and phenotypic data. This phylogenetic result is corroborated by their highly similar ascomata anatomy. Together these results strongly indicate that both species are congeneric with Spirographa. As a result, four new species (S. aggregata sp. nov., S. galligena sp. nov., S. maroneae sp. nov., and S. parmotrematis sp. nov.) and 15 new combinations are proposed (Spirographa ascaridiella comb. nov., S. arsenii comb. nov., S. ciliata comb. nov., S. giselae comb. nov., S. herteliana comb. nov., S. hypotrachynae comb. nov., S. intermedia comb. nov., S. lichenicola comb. nov., S. limaciformis comb. nov., S. ophiurospora comb. nov., S. pittii comb. nov., S. pyramidalis comb. nov., S. triangularis comb. nov., S. tricupulata comb. nov., and S. vermiformis comb. nov.). Species of the genus Spirographa, as outlined here, are strongly host-specific, mainly at the generic level of their host. Some host genera can harbour more than one Spirographa species.

Lecidea Ach. in its broad sense, is one of the largest and most heterogeneous genus of lichenized fungi with a worldwide distribution and with diversity hotspots located in the temperate and polar regions. The genus belongs to a crust-like microlichen group and inhabits many different substrates (e.g., bark, rock, wood, soil, mosses). Lecidea does not form a coherent systematic entity, and previous studies have revealed it as a polyphyletic assemblage with species spread across various families within the Lecanoromycetes. The present study is a modern taxonomic revision of southern South America non-saxicolous lecideoid lichens based on morphological, anatomical and chemical characters. A total of 27 species belonging to ten genera are recognized. The current study reveals a substantial, previously hidden, diversity of lichens in Valdivian temperate and Magellanic subpolar forests; increasing the number of known lecideoid lichens in the studied area. Many new regional records are also reported including six species new to South America (Bryobilimbia hypnorum, Hertelidea botryosa, H. eucalypti, Japewiella tavaresiana, Placynthiella oligotropha, and Ramboldia brunneocarpa). The following species are here described as new to science: Bryobilimbia flakusii Rodr. Flakus sp. nov. (Argentina), B. pallida Rodr. Flakus sp. nov. (Argentina, Chile), Hertelidea printzenii Rodr. Flakus sp. nov. (Argentina), H. stipitata Rodr. Flakus sp. nov. (Argentina, Chile), “Lecidea” vobisii Rodr. Flakus sp. nov. (Argentina), and Ramboldia australis Rodr. Flakus sp. nov. (Argentina, Chile). All species are described and illustrated in detail, and an identification key to the species is provided. In addition, as a result of a revision of available type material, a list of 48 additional species excluded from this study, including brief remarks on their taxonomical affiliations, is provided.

Leprariacryptovouauxiiis described as a new semicryptic species similar toL.vouauxii, from which it differs geographically (South America) and phylogenetically; both species differ in nucleotide position characters in nucITS barcoding marker.Leprariaharrisianais reported as new to South America andL.nothofagias new to Antarctica, Bolivia, and Peru.Leprariaincana(South American records are referred to L.aff.hodkinsoniana) andL.vouauxii(most South American records are referred toL.cryptovouauxii) should be excluded at least temporarily from the lichen list of South America. All records previously referred to asL.alpinafrom Bolivia and Peru belong toL.nothofagi. Most of Bolivian records ofL.pallidabelong toL.harrisiana.LeprariaborealisandL.caesioalbashould be included inL.neglecta. Leprariaachariana,L.impossibilis, andL.sipmanianaare sequenced for the first time.

New collections are reported of the monospecific genusPolypyrenula, an apparently extinct and doubtfully lichenized fungus, typically classified in thePyrenulaceae. Anatomical studies reveal that it is facultatively lichenized. The structure of its hamathecium suggests affinities with Dothideomycetes rather than Eurotiomycetes. Molecular analysis using nuLSU and mtSSU markers demonstrates for the first time its inclusion inTrypetheliaceae, outside the core genera as part of the early diverging lineages in this family. The known distribution ofPolypyrenulais extended to Mexico and South America, new information on its phorophyte associations is provided, and the namePolypyrenula sexlocularisis reinstated as the correct name for this species.

The main aims of this work were to assess phylogenetic relationships of the trentepohlialean photobionts in tropical, mainly sterile, lichens collected in Bolivia, to examine their genetic diversity, host specificity, and the impact of habitat factors on the occurrence of Trentepohliales. Based on rbcL marker analysis, we constructed a phylogenetic tree with eight major clades of Trentepohliales, of which seven free-living species are intermingled with lichenized ones. Our analyses show that the studied photobionts are scattered across the phylogenetic tree and algae from temperate and tropical regions do not form monophyletic groups, except within one clade that seems to be restricted to the tropics. There is no significant occurrence pattern of lichenized Trentepohliaceae on a specific substratum, except Cephaleuros spp. and Phycopeltis spp., which are restricted to leaves, while some clades with lichenized algae may be specialized to tree bark and wood. Moreover, we found two patterns of associations: first, closely related algae can associate with distantly related mycobionts; second, some other trentepohlioid algae associate with selected lineages of fungi (e.g., Arthoniaceae or Graphidaceae). We also found that some lineages of photobionts are even more selective and associate exclusively with one species (e.g., Dichosporidium nigrocinctum, Diorygma antillarum) or closely related lichen-forming fungi (Herpothallon spp.). Concluding, we found that occurrence of some trentepohlialean photobionts may correlate with the particular type of the mycobiont.

Until recently, the reptile fauna of Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean comprised five endemic species (two skinks, two geckos, and one snake) and one native, non‐endemic skink. Four of these species were common and widespread until at least 1979, but by 2012 had disappeared from the wild. During the years of decline, little research was undertaken to examine why the species were disappearing. Here, we use a retrospective expert elicitation to rank potential factors that contributed to the loss of Christmas Island's reptiles and to assess the likelihood of re‐establishing populations of two species now listed as Extinct in the Wild. We additionally considered why one endemic lizard, the Christmas Island giant gecko (Cyrtodactylus sadleiri), and three introduced lizards remain common. Experts considered that the introduced common wolf snake (Lycodon capucinus) was the most likely cause of decline, as its temporal and spatial spread across the island closely matched patterns of lizard disappearances. An Asian co‐occurrence in recent evolutionary timeframes of the common wolf snake with the Christmas Island giant gecko and three introduced reptiles was the most marked point of difference between the extant and lost lizard species. The demise in less than 20 years of 80% of Christmas Island's native lizard assemblage highlights the vulnerability of island fauna to invading species.

Lichen-inhabiting fungi are highly specialized mycoparasites, commensals or rarely saprotrophs, that are common components of almost every ecosystem, where they develop obligate associations with lichens. Their relevance, however, contrasts with the relatively small number of these fungi described so far. Recent estimates and ongoing studies indicate that a significant fraction of their diversity remains undiscovered and may be expected in tropical regions, in particular in hyperdiverse fog-exposed montane forests. Here, we introduce the new genus Zhurbenkoa, from South America and Europe, for three lichenicolous fungi growing on thalli of the widespread lichen genus Cladonia (Lecanorales). Phylogenetic analyses based on combined sequence data of mt and nuc rDNA obtained from Andean populations (Bolivia) placed Zhurbenkoa as a member of Malmideaceae, a recently introduced family of lichen-forming fungi in the class Lecanoromycetes. Zhurbenkoa is closely related to the genera Savoronala and Sprucidea. The new genus is characterized by the development of grayish brown to almost black apothecia lacking an evident margin, an epihymenium interspersed with crystals (often seen as pruina), a strongly conglutinated hymenium made of noncapitate and sparsely branched paraphyses, a colorless exciple composed of radially arranged hyphae, a Lecanora/Micarea-like ascus type, and aseptate or 1-septate ellipsoidal colorless ascospores. Zhurbenkoa includes two Neotropical (Z. cladoniarum, Z. latispora) and one widespread (Z. epicladonia) species. The lichenicolous trophic mode is documented for the first time in the Malmideaceae, which until now included only lichen-forming associations between fungi and green algae., This research was financially supported by the National Science Centre (NCN) in Poland (DEC-2013/11/D/NZ8/03274). A.F. and P.R.F. received additional support under statutory funds from the W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland. S.P.O. was supported by the grant RYC-2014-16784 from the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness. Z.P. acknowledges the support by the Academy of Science of the Czech Republic (AV0Z60050516, RVO 67985939).

A new coprinoid fungus, Coprinopsis rugosomagnispora, is described from Poland (Central Europe). Its macromorphological characters are similar to species belonging to the subsection Nivei of Coprinus s.l. However, C. rugosomagnispora has unique micromorphological characters: very large, ornamented spores, voluminous basidia and cystidia, and smooth veil elements. The large spores and pattern of spore ornamentation (densely pitted) make this species unique within all coprinoid species described so far. The structure (arrangement and shape) of veil elements in C. rugosomagnispora is intermediate between members of the subsections Nivei and Lanatuli of Coprinus s.l. Molecular phylogenetic analyses, based on single-locus (ITS) maximum likelihood and Bayesian evolutionary trees recovered C. rugosomagnispora within a lineage containing species having morphological characters of the subsection Lanatuli (though within the so-called Atramentarii clade) that contradicts its morphological similarity to members of the subsection Nivei.

Faced with increasing rates of biodiversity loss and modest conservation budgets, it is essential that natural resource managers allocate their financial resources in a cost-effective manner and provide transparent evidence for extra funding. We developed the 'Cost-Effective Resource Allocator', a Microsoft Excel-based decision support tool to assist natural resource managers and policy makers, to prioritize the set of management strategies that maximize the total number of years that a suite of species is expected to persist given a budget constraint. We describe this tool using a case study of four locally threatened species from the Australian Commonwealth National Park of Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean. These include: a native fern (Pneumatopteris truncata), the Christmas Island Red Crab (Gecarcoidea natalis), the Golden Bosun (Phaethon lepturus fulvus), and Abbott's Booby (Papasula abbotti). Under a hypothetical budget of 8,826,000 AUD over ten years, in which all species are considered equal, our tool recommends funding: fern propagation and planting, rat control, cat control, and Yellow Crazy Ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) survey and control. We found that the cost-effectiveness rankings of these strategies were sensitive to the importance that assessors' assigned to different species. The 'Cost-Effective Resource Allocator' can accommodate input from up to eight assessors, and analyse a maximum of 50 management strategies for 30 species.

As with many islands, Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean has suffered severe biodiversity loss. Its terrestrial lizard fauna comprised five native species, of which four were endemic. These were abundant until at least the late 1970s, but four species declined rapidly thereafter and were last reported in the wild between 2009 and 2013. In response to the decline, a captive breeding programme was established in August 2009. This attempt came too late for the Christmas Island forest skink Emoia nativitatis, whose last known individual died in captivity in 2014, and for the non-endemic coastal skink Emoia atrocostata. However, two captive populations are now established for Lister's gecko Lepidodactylus listeri and the blue-tailed skink Cryptoblepharus egeriae. The conservation future for these two species is challenging: reintroduction will not be possible until the main threats are identified and controlled.

The present treatment shows that the lichen family Trypetheliaceae is an important component of lowland and montane tropical forests in Bolivia. A total of 75 species are currently recognized in Bolivia, of which 24 are new to science and a further 37 are reported for the first time from the country. The following species are described: Architrypethelium penuriixanthum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. hyalinum in the lack of lichexanthone in the thallus; Astrothelium amylosporum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. subdisjunctum in having 8-spored asci and amyloid ascospores; A. bullatum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. megaspermum in having a bullate thallus, a clear hamathecium, 8-spored asci and smaller amyloid ascospores; A. carrascoense Flakus, Kukwa & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. meristosporum in having broader ascospores without distinctly thickened median septa, an unidentified xanthone as major substance, and mostly eccentric ostioles; A. elixii Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from all other Astrothelium species in the presence of lichexanthone in the outer layer of thallus and pseudostromata and isohypocrellin inside the pseudostromata, and muriform ascospores; A. inspersotuberculosum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. tuberculosum in having an inspersed hamathecium; A. megaeneum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. croceum in having a thallus covered by parietin, and mostly fused ascomata with intermediate, fused to separated ostioles surrounded by a common ostiolar area; A. neodiplocarpum Flakus, Kukwa & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. diplocarpum in the absence of medullary pigment and in the amyloid ascospores; A. nigrocacuminum Flakus, Kukwa & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. megochroleucum in having fused, eccentric ostioles and black (UV−) tops of the pseudostromata; A. pallidoflavum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. cinnamomeum in having wider ascospores; A. pyrenuliforme Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. ecuadoriensis ecuadoriense in having shorter ascospores and in the presence of pseudocyphellae; A. subscoria Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. scoria in having non-aggregated ascomata; A. variabile Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from A. ochroleucoides in the longer ascospores; Bathelium boliviense Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from B. lineare in the presence of isohypocrellin inside the pseudostromata; B. flavostiolatum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from all other Bathelium species in the presence of lichexanthone near the ostioles (tops of pseudostromata UV+ yellow) and an orange (K+ carmine red) pigment inside the pseudostromata, the absence of lichexanthone in the thallus, an inspersed hamathecium, and 13–17-septate ascospores; B. inspersomastoideum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from B. mastoideum in having an inspersed hamathecium; B. mirabile Flakus, Kukwa & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from other Bathelium species in the pseudostromata containing isohypocrellin inside and parietin outside; B. pruinosum Flakus, Kukwa & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from Astrothelium ochroleucoides in having 8-spored asci, shorter ascospores, an inspersed hamathecium, and an unidentified anthraquinone (orange pigment K+ carmine red) inside the pseudostromata; Constrictolumina chiquitana Flakus, Kukwa & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from other known Constrictolumina species in having brown and 1-septate to submuriform ascospores; Dictyomeridium lueckingii Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from D. proponens in having smaller and less septate ascospores; Polymeridium xanthoexcentricum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from P. alboflavescens in having mostly eccentric ostioles; Pseudopyrenula flavosuperans Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from P. superans in having a hamathecium inspersed with yellow oil globules; Trypethelium astroideum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from T. subeluteriae in having K+ carmine red pseudostromata containing parietin inside and black tops with an additional unidentified anthraquinone (rust-red pigment K+ purple, UV−) on the outside, partly fused ostioles, and larger ascospores; and T. xanthoplatystomum Flakus & Aptroot sp. nov. that differs from T. platystomum in the presence of lichexanthone in the thallus.

Kukwa, M., Sipman, H. J. M., Etayo, J., Bach, K., Guzow-Krzeminska, B., Jablonska, A., Olszewska, S., Rodriguez Flakus, P. & Flakus, A. 2014. The lichen order Peltigerales in Bolivia — the first assessment of the biodiversity. — Herzogia 27: 321–345. Sixty-six species belonging to the order Peltigerales are reported from Bolivia. Four species, Coccocarpia gallaicoi, C. microphyllina, Lobariella spathulifera and L. subcrenulata, are new to the Southern Hemisphere and Coccocarpia adnata is new to South America. 29 taxa are recorded for the first time in Bolivia. Several other taxa are reported for the first time from contemporary localities. The taxonomic placement of specimens lacking secondary metabolites within Peltigera ulcerata is supported by analyses of ITS nu-rDNA sequences. As a result we found that P. ulcerata is chemically more variable than previously reported. Notes on the habitat and general distribution of all species are presented, with taxonomic remarks provided for some taxa.

Members of the lichen genus Lecanora Ach. are important but still poorly known components of almost all vegetation types in Bolivia. In this paper, seven species new for Bolivia are presented: Lecanora bicincta Ramond, L. fulvastra Kremp., L. hagenii (Ach.) Ach., L. muralis (Schreb.) Rabenh., L. percrenata H. Magn., L. stramineoalbida Vain. and L. strobilina (Spreng.) Kieff. Their distributions are described and information on their diagnostic characters and chemistry is given

In our ongoing study of the genus Cladonia, we have encountered several specimens that have proved to represent undescribed species. Four of them are described here as new. Cladonia camerunensis (Cameroon) resembles C. didyma (Fée) Vain., but the former has a coarsely granular surface and a melanotic podetial base; C. compressa (Bolivia) is distinguished by a dominant primary thallus and deeply divided and phyllopodiate podetia; C. longisquama (Seychelles) has well-developed squamules and contains barbatic acid; C. vescula (Bolivia, Peru) differs from C. peziziformis (With.) J. Laundon by an ecorticate podetial surface and the production of homosekikaic acid. The names C. aspera Ahti & Kashiw. and C. crinita (Delise ex Pers.) Ahti are shown to be illegitimate later homonyms and are replaced by the names C. asperula and C. perfoliata, respectively. The neglected name C. botryoides (Tuck.) Vain. is shown to be a synonym of C. squamosa. Another overlooked name, C. crinita Bertol., is shown to be the earliest name for C. evansii, but we propose to retain the latter through conservation. The typification of C. beaumontii Tuck. is amended. Cladonia conspicua is reinstated on the basis of new data. New range extensions in Canada and the United States are given for the poorly documented species C. oricola.

An endemic subspecies of Buff-banded Rail (Gallirallus philippensis) is restricted to the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, a group of 27 islands, with total area of ~15 km2, in the north-eastern Indian Ocean. Human settlement led to marked environmental degradation of the 26 islands in the southern atoll of the group. The Cocos Buff-banded Rail declined severely, with the last confirmed record from islands in the southern atoll in 1991. The subspecies has persisted, however, with a population of ~800 individuals, on a single island, Pulu Keeling, 24 km north of the southern atoll. A recovery plan for this endangered subspecies recommended reintroduction to a suitable island in the southern atoll. This paper provides a brief overview of the history and status of the subspecies, and describes an April 2013 reintroduction of 39 rails from Pulu Keeling to the 1-km2 Horsburgh Island in the southern atoll. This program has had at least short-term success, with monitoring showing successful recruitment in the reintroduced population, and its increase to ~54 individuals by October 2014 and ~121 individuals by June 2015. Much of the world’s loss of biodiversity has been from, and continues to occur on, islands: this project demonstrates that well-considered mitigation of threats and translocation programs can provide solutions to this challenge.

Fuscidea multispora Flakus, Kukwa & Rodr. Flakus and Malmidea attenboroughii Kukwa, Guzow-Krzeminska, Kosecka, Jablonska & Flakus are described as new to science based on morphological, chemical and molecular characters. Lepra subventosa var. hypothamnolica is genetically and chemically distinct from L. subventosa var. subventosa and a new name, Lepra pseudosubventosa Kukwa & Guzow-Krzeminska, is proposed due to the existence of Lepra hypothamnolica (Dibben) Lendemer & R.C. Harris . Pertusaria muricata , recently transferred to Lepra , is kept in the genus Pertusaria due to the highest similarity of ITS sequence with members of Pertusaria . The occurrence of Micarea hedlundii in the Southern Hemisphere is confirmed based on molecular evidence from Bolivian population. Lepra pseudosubventosa and Pertusaria muricata are reported as new to South America, and 20 taxa as new to Bolivia. Lepraria stephaniana , previously known only from the type locality, is reported from two more sites. An ascosporic state is reported for the first time for Lepra amaroides , as are new chemotypes. Molecular markers were used to place some sterile, sorediate crustose lichens in the family Graphidaceae. The phylogenetic positions of some sterile Malmidea specimens within Malmidaceae are also discussed.

The paper presents new records for four taxa of Ochrolechia A. Massal. from Bolivia, of which three, O. austroamericana (Räsänen) Räsänen, O. subpallescens f. Verseghy uruguayensis Verseghy and O. upsaliensis (L.) A. Massal., are new for the country. Ochrolechia subpallescens f. uruguayensis is shown to differ chemically from O. subpallescens s.str., but its taxonomic rank needs to be clarified with molecular studies. Ochrolechia africana Vain. is also reported for the first time for Tanzania and Uruguay, and O. austroamericana for Ecuador.

Farkas, E. & Flakus, A. 2015. Rare or overlooked? — Two species of Lyromma (Lyrommataceae, lichenized Ascomycota) are new for Africa. — Herzogia 28: 204–211. Two species of the foliicolous lichenized genus Lyromma so far known only from the Neotropics are reported for the first time from Africa. Lyromma multisetulatum, described from Bolivia and Brazil, was found recently in Kenya and Tanzania, and L. pilosum in Tanzania. Tanzanian specimens were discovered in lowland rainforest collections from 200 to 500 m altitude. The Kenyan collection originates from moist montane forests at c. 2000 m elevation. Both species are characterized by both perithecia and pycnidia observed on the same thallus. The distribution and frequency of these taxa are briefly discussed, and compared to other taxa with similar distribution patterns.

Pertusarialean lichens include more than 300 species belonging to several independent phylogenetic lineages. Only some of these phylogenetic clades have been comprehensively sampled for molecular data, and formally described as genera. Here we present a taxonomic treatment of a group of pertusarialean lichens formerly known as "Pertusaria amara-group", "Monomurata-group", or "Variolaria-group", which includes widespread and well-known taxa such as P. amara, P. albescens, or P. ophthalmiza. We generated a 6-locus data set with 79 OTUs representing 75 species. The distinction of the Variolaria clade is supported and consequently, the resurrection of the genus Lepra is followed. Thirty-five new combinations into Lepra are proposed and the new species Lepra austropacifica is described from mangroves in the South Pacific. Lepra is circumscribed to include species with disciform ascomata, a weakly to non-amyloid hymenial gel, strongly amyloid asci without clear apical amyloid structures, containing 1 or 2, single-layered, thin-walled ascospores. Chlorinated xanthones are not present, but thamnolic and picrolichenic acids occur frequently, as well as orcinol depsides. Seventy-one species are accepted in the genus. Although the distinction of the genus from Pertusaria is strongly supported, the relationships of Lepra remain unresolved and the genus is tentatively placed in Pertusariales incertae sedis.

The new obligately lichenicolous fungus, Melaspilea tucumana Flakus, Etayo & Kukwa, inhabiting thalli of saxicolous Pertusaria s. lat. is described from Tucumano-Boliviano vegetation in Bolivia. The species is characterized by the gall formation and superficial, lirelliform to branched, aggregated apothecioid ascomata with widely exposed discs. The ascomata of M. tucumana are initially perithecioid and immersed in the host thallus, but become superficial and apothecioid when mature, and thus resemble the genus Buelliella. This may suggest the placement of the new species in Dothideomycetes.

Kukwa, M., Schiefelbein, U. & Flakus, A. 2013. A contribution to the lichen family Graphidaceae (Ostropales, Ascomycota) of Bolivia. - Herzogia 26: 231–252. Carbacanthogr aphis violaceospora Kukwa & Flakus, Graphis boliviana Kukwa & Flakus and G. seawardii Flakus & Kukwa are described as new to science from Bolivia. In addition 56 corticolous and muscicolous species of Graphidaceae are reported for the first time from Bolivia, of which four, Graphis pinicola, G. urandrae, Phaeographis dendroides and P. quadrifera, are new to South America, and six, Graphis argentata, G. litoralis, G. nudaeformis, G. pittieri, G. subflexibilis and Phaeographis delicatula, are new to the Southern Hemisphere. Notes on the chemistry, habitat and general distribution are provided, with taxonomic remarks provided for some species.

Non-saxicolous lecideoid lichens form a diverse and polyphyletic group of species with a worldwide distribution. The phylogenetic relationships of the taxa and major clades are still largely unresolved. Here we introduce a new genus Palicella Rodr. Flakus & Printzen for Lecidea glaucopa Hook. f. & Tayl. and two closely related species. Our molecular phylogenetic results, based on maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic trees, and a combined dataset of five gene loci (ITS, nrLSU, mrSSU, RPB1 and RPB2), indicate that Palicella forms a monophyletic clade sister to Lecanora symmicta and Pyrrhospora quernea. The new genus is characterized by biatorine apothecia, which are often darkened (by the pigment Cinereorufa-green), an exciple of radiating, narrow hyphae with strongly elongate lumina, a hymenium with branched and sparsely anastomosed paraphyses, an ascus with a broad axial body surrounded by a distinct darker staining layer, and narrowly ellipsoid ascospores. Atranorin is present in all, usnic acid in two and pannarin in one species of the genus. Three new combinations are proposed: Palicella filamentosa (Stirt.) Rodr. Flakus & Printzen, P. glaucopa (Hook. f. & Taylor) Rodr. Flakus & Printzen, and P. schizochromatica (Pérez-Ortega, T. Sprib. & Printzen) Rodr. Flakus & Printzen. The molecular phylogenetic analysis confirms that Lecidea hercynica Hauck & Schmull is a synonym of P. filamentosa. An identification key to the species is provided.

Flying-foxes (Pteropodidae) show a high rate of island endemism, but island-endemic taxa have shown a high rate of decline and extinction, mostly because their small population sizes are susceptible to hunting pressure and habitat loss. The Christmas Island flying-fox is restricted to the 135 Km2 Christmas Island (Indian Ocean), as either an endemic species Pteropus natalis or a markedly distinct subspecies of Pteropus melanotus. Given recent declines and extinctions of other native vertebrate species on this Island, this study sought to monitor population trends for this taxon. Monitoring flying-foxes at roost sites is difficult because they are highly vagile, not all roost sites may be known to observers, and dense vegetation at some sites may make counts inaccurate. These constraints are particularly evident on Christmas Island. In this study, we sought to establish a monitoring program complementary to roost counts, and to assess changes in reporting rate from a baseline sampling of 107 sites spaced a...

New records of five lichenized fungi from Poland are provided. Hypotrachyna afrorevoluta, Lecanora quercicola, Rhizocarpon superficiale and Strigula ziziphi are new to Poland. Of these, Strigula ziziphi is reported also as new to Central Europe and Hypotrachyna afrorevoluta as new to the Carpathians. Additionally, Thelenella muscorum var. octospora is recorded from its second locality in Poland as new to the Polish Carpathians. Hypostictic acid chemosyndrome has been noticed for the first time in European (Poland) and South American (Bolivia) populations of Rhizocarpon superficiale.

Kukwa, M., Schiefelbein, U. & Flakus, A. 2013. A contribution to the lichen family Graphidaceae (Ostropales, Ascomycota) of Bolivia. - Herzogia 26: 231–252.Carbacanthogr aphis violaceospora Kukwa & Flakus, Graphis boliviana Kukwa & Flakus and G. seawardii Flakus & Kukwa are described as new to science from Bolivia. In addition 56 corticolous and muscicolous species of Graphidaceae are reported for the first time from Bolivia, of which four, Graphis pinicola, G. urandrae, Phaeographis dendroides and P. quadrifera, are new to South America, and six, Graphis argentata, G. litoralis, G. nudaeformis, G. pittieri, G. subflexibilis and Phaeographis delicatula, are new to the Southern Hemisphere. Notes on the chemistry, habitat and general distribution are provided, with taxonomic remarks provided for some species.

The new lichenicolous Capronia paranectrioides Etayo, Flakus & Kukwa, inhabiting thalli of Erioderma leylandii, is described from Bolivia. The species is characterized by pale brown, submuriform and bicaudate ascospores, subglobose to barrel-shaped perithecia and I+ red, K/I+ pale blue hymenial gelatine. It is the first known Capronia species producing ascospores with long apical appendages.

Niesslia echinoides Etayo, Flakus & Kukwa sp. nov. is described from Bolivia from the corticolous thallus of Erioderma barbellatum. The fungus is characterized by large ascospores usually breaking into halves within the asci, strongly setose and aggregated ascomata, usually simple setae, and no damage caused to the host thallus.

A new gall-inducing lichenicolous fungus, Plectocarpon stereocaulicola Kukwa, Etayo and Flakus, is described from Bolivia from the thalli of Stereocaulon sp. The new species is characterized by black, epruinose rounded ascomata with a carbonized surface and a thalline pseudo-margin, as well as a non-carbonized, light brown sterile stromatic tissue in the lower part and 3-septate ascospores becoming brown and ornamented when mature.

Four new species of lichenicolous fungi are described from Bolivia: Capronia etayoi Flakus & Kukwa sp. nov. (on Dictyonema minus), Lichenosticta jurgae Kukwa & Flakus sp. nov. (on Lecanora sp.), Phaeosporobolus trypethelii Flakus & Kukwa sp. nov. (on Trypetheliumochroleucum; the host lichen new to Bolivia) and Spirographa usneae Flakus, Kukwa & Etayo sp. nov. (on Usnea sp.; also known from Ecuador).

The foliicolous lichenized fungus Calopadia erythrocephala Farkas, Elix & Flakus, is described as new to science from the Atlantic submontane rainforests in Brazil. The species is very similar to C. puiggarii, but is distinguished by the presence of a red pigment in the campylidia, the darker apothecial discs and larger conidia. Fusarubin, the red pigment produced by the new species, is reported for the first time from foliicolous lichens. A world-wide key to foliicolous species of Calopadia with single, muriform ascospores is presented.

Acarospora dissecta (Bolivia) and Sarcogyne brunnea (Bolivia, Ecuador) are described as new to science. Acarospora trachyticola, a common effigurate species in Peru, is revised and reported as new for Argentina, Bolivia and Venezuela. Acarospora brasiliensis is considered as a later synonym of A. lorentzii, which is reported new for Peru. Sarcogyne terrena is revised. Silobia smaragdula is verified as occurring in Chile. Polysporina urceolata is reported new to South America from Bolivia.

This paper presents new data on the geographic distribution of 84 lichen species in Bolivia. Bulbothrix chowoensis (Hale) Hale is new to South America. Twenty-five species are new national records: Chaenotheca confusa Tibell, Cora bovei Speg., C. reticulifera Vain., Dictyonema obscuratum Lucking, Spielmann & Marcelli, Gassicurtia ferruginascens (Malme) Marbach & Kalb, Haematomma subinnatum (Malme) Kalb & Staiger, Malmidea badimioides (M. Caceres & Lucking) M. Ca- ceres & Kalb, Maronea constans (Nyl.) Hepp, Menegazzia subsimilis (H. Magn.) R. Sant., Myelochroa lindmanii (Lynge) Elix & Hale, Parmotrema commensuratum (Hale) Hale, P. conformatum (Vain.) Hale, P. disparile (Nyl.) Hale, P. machupicchuense Kurok., P. mordenii (Hale) Hale, P. praesorediosum (Nyl.) Hale, P. submarginale (Michx.) DePriest & B. W. Hale, P. viridiflavum (Hale) Hale, P. wainioi (A. L. Sm.) Hale, P. xanthinum (Mull. Arg.) Hale, P. yodae (Kurok.) Hale, Protoparmelia multifera (Nyl.) Kantvilas, Papong & Lumbsch, Ramboldia haematites (Fee) Kalb, Lumbsch & Elix, Solorina spongiosa (Ach.) Anzi and Stigmatochroma metaleptodes (Nyl.) Marbach. Notes on distribution and chemistry are provided.

Two new corticolous lichen species are described,Lepraria nothofagiElix & Kukwa (atranorin, strepsilin, porphyrilic acid) from Argentina andL. stephanianaElix, Flakus & Kukwa (4-O-methylleprolomin, zeorin, salazinic acid, unknown terpenoid) from pre-Andean Amazon forest of Bolivia. In addition, the paper presents new records of 16 species ofLeprariafrom South America.Lepraria adhaerens, andL. diffusaare new to the Southern Hemisphere;L. borealisis new to South America;L. alpinais new to Chile, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela;L. caesioalba(chemotype I) is new to Venezuela,L. lobificansnew to Argentina,L. pallidanew to Peru, andL. sipmaniananew to Bolivia and Chile. The Chilean records ofL. membranaceaappeared to belong toL. sipmaniana. Therefore, the number ofLeprariaspp. known at present from South America is enlarged to 27 species. 4-O-methylleprolomin is reported for the second time from lichens.

A new lichenized fungus, Lecanora microloba Śliwa & Flakus, is described from the subnival belt of the Polish Tatra Mountains. It is characterized by small, saxicolous thalli with minutely lobulate marginal areoles and mostly broadly sessile and constantly pale coloured apothecia that are grouped predominantly in the centre of the thallus. Anatomically the species is distinguished by coarse granules in the epithecium which are distinctly bright in polarized light. The species contains gyrophoric and usnic acids, zeorin and an unknown terpene as secondary metabolites.

In this paper three new species of Plectocarpon , P. dimorphosporum (on Ricasolia patinifera ), P. parmotrematis (on Parmotrema reticulatum ) and P. ramalinae (on Ramalina celastri ), are described from tropical montane forests in the Bolivian Andes. Plectocarpon dimorphosporum is characterized by strongly convex ascomata covered by the host cortex when young, presence of Atra-brown pigment and 1–3-septate ascospores developing a brown-pigmented granular perispore, P. parmotrematis by rounded and slightly superficial ascomata, presence of pigments reacting K+ aeruginose to turquoise and colorless 3-septate ascospores, and P. ramalinae by ellipsoid, black ascomata, Atra-brown pigment, and short, colorless, 3-septate ascospores. In addition, the rare Protounguicularia fasciculata is reported here for the first time from Bolivia.

Acarospora ramosa K. Knudsen & Flakus is described as new to science from the Bolivian Andes. It is characterized by a yellow, epruinose, rugulose thallus with a distinct effigurate margin, punctiform apothecia, and thin, branching and anastomosing paraphyses. The main diagnostic substances the new species produces are rhizocarpic and gyrophoric acids.

The recently described, terricolous and corticolous, sorediate lichen Lecanora flavoleprosa (belonging to the L. symmicta group) is for the first time recorded from the Carpathians. So far, this rare European species has only been reported from a few localities in the Austrian and Swiss Alps, and Fennoscandia (Norway and Sweden). In this paper several records from the Polish and Slovak Tatra Mts are presented, most of them found recently, but a few also discovered during revision of old material collected by Z. Tobolewski. The ecology and chemistry of the taxon, and differences from related sorediate Lecanora species are briefly discussed.

The corticolous lichenized fungus Aspidothelium lueckingii Flakus is described and illustrated as new to science from the montane cloud forest in Bolivia. It is characterized by pale perithecia with seta-like appendages and large, regularly muriform ascospores. The species is the sixth known member of the genus producing muriform ascospores. A key to all known species of Aspidothelium with muriform ascospores is provided.

The paper deals with 18 species of the lichen genus Cladonia, including eight species new to Bolivia: C. cf. borbonica, C. coccifera, C. confragosa, C. dactylota, C. granulosa, C. kriegeri, C. merochlorophaea, and C. squamosa. Furthermore, C. kriegeri is recorded here from its second and third localities in the world. Also five lichenicolous fungi are reported; among them Arthrorhaphis aeruginosa, Polycoccum microcarpum and Sphaerellothecium cladoniae are new to the southern hemisphere, and Roselliniella cladoniae and Tremella cladoniae are new to Bolivia. Additionally, Polycoccum microcarpum is reported for the first time from Slovakia and Ukraine. Cladonia confragosa is reported as a new host for Sphaerellothecium cladoniae and Tremella cladoniae.

Six new species of foliicolous lichenized fungi are described as new to science from Bolivian lowland Amazon forest: Asterothyrium vezdae Flakus & Lücking (Asterothyriaceae), Keratosphaera multiseptata Flakus & Lücking (Pseudoperisporiaceae), Phylloblastia bielczykiae Flakus & Lücking (Verrucariaceae), Porina boliviana Flakus & Lücking (Porinaceae), Tapellaria intermedia Flakus & Lücking (Pilocarpaceae) and Trichothelium subargenteum Flakus & Lücking (Porinaceae). In addition, new records of 70 lichen species in Bolivia are listed. Of these, 52 are new to Bolivia.

Cladonia crispata var. cetrariiformis has only sporadically been reported from the Tatra Mts so far. However, undoubtedly it is common in this part of the Carpathians. New data about locations of the taxon are presented. Description and ecology of the Polish population are briefly characterized. The paper also contains a distribution map and useful taxonomical remarks concerning this lichen taxon.