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Microcystins (MCs) and nodularins (NODs) exhibit high structural variability, including modifications of the Adda (3S-amino-9S-methoxy-2S,6,8S-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4E,6E-dienoic acid) moiety. Variations include 9-O-desmethylAdda (DMAdda) and 9-O-acetylDMAdda (ADMAdda) which, unless targeted, may go undetected. Therefore, reference standards were prepared of [ADMAdda5]MCs and [DMAdda5]MCs, which were analyzed using multiple approaches. The cross-reactivities of the [DMAdda5]- and [ADMAdda5]MC standards were similar to that of MC-LR when analyzed with a protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) inhibition assay, but were, Graphical abstract Image 1, Highlights • Toxic ADMAdda/DMAdda microcystins (MCs) exhibit low cross-reactivity with Adda ELISA. • A method for oxidative cleavage was expanded to test for ADMAdda/DMAdda MCs. • Two sites of oxidative cleavage of the Adda/DMAdda/ADMAdda were observed. • Oxidation products were identified and analytically tested to quantitate ‘total MCs’.

In the summer of 2012, over 750 dead and dying birds were observed at the Paul S. Sarbanes Ecosystem Restoration Project at Poplar Island, Maryland, USA (Chesapeake Bay). Clinical signs suggested avian botulism, but an ongoing dense Microcystis bloom was present in an impoundment on the island. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis of a water sample indicated 6000 ng mL −1 of microcystins (MCs). LC-UV/MS analysis confirmed the presence of MC-LR and a high concentration of an unknown MC congener ( m/z 1037.5). The unknown MC was purified and confirmed to be [D-Leu 1 ]MC-LR using NMR spectroscopy, LC-HRMS and LC–MS 2 , which slowly converted to [D-Leu 1 ,Glu(OMe) 6 ]MC-LR during storage in MeOH. Lyophilized algal material from the bloom was further characterized using LC-HRMS and LC–MS 2 in combination with chemical derivatizations, and an additional 24 variants were detected, including MCs conjugated to Cys, GSH and γ-GluCys and their corresponding sulfoxides. Mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos ) livers were tested to confirm MC exposure. Two broad-specificity MC ELISAs and LC–MS 2 were used to measure free MCs, while ‘total’ MCs were estimated by both MMPB (3-methoxy-2-methyl-4-phenylbutyric acid) and thiol de-conjugation techniques. Free microcystins in the livers (63–112 ng g −1 ) accounted for 33–41% of total microcystins detected by de-conjugation and MMPB techniques. Free [D-Leu 1 ]MC-LR was quantitated in tissues at 25–67 ng g −1 (LC–MS 2 ). The levels of microcystin varied based on analytical method used, highlighting the need to develop a comprehensive analysis strategy to elucidate the etiology of bird mortality events when microcystin-producing HABs are present.

In 2013 and 2015, the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection conducted a survey of lotic habitats within the Susquehanna, Delaware, and Ohio River basins in Pennsylvania, USA, to screen for microcystins/nodularins (MCs/NODs) in algae communities and smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu). Periphyton (68 from 41 sites), juvenile whole fish (153 from 19 sites) and adult fish liver (115 from 16 sites) samples were collected and screened using an Adda enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Samples that were positive for MCs/NODs were further analyzed using LC-MS/MS, including 14 variants of microcystin and NOD-R and the MMPB technique. The ELISA was positive for 47% of the periphyton collections, with NOD-R confirmed (0.7–82.2 ng g−1 d.w.) in 20 samples. NOD-R was confirmed in 10 of 15 positive juvenile whole fish samples (0.8–16.7 ng g−1 w.w.) and in 2 of 8 liver samples (1.7 & 2.8 ng g−1 w.w.). The MMPB method resulted in total MCs/NODs measured in periphyton (2.2–1269 ng g−1 d.w.), juvenile whole fish (5.0–210 ng g−1 d.w.) and adult livers (8.5–29.5 ng g−1 d.w.). This work illustrates that NOD-R is present in freshwater benthic algae in the USA, which has broader implications for monitoring and trophic transfer.

In the summer of 2018, six dogs exposed to a harmful algal bloom (HAB) of Microcystis in Martin County Florida (USA) developed clinicopathological signs of microcystin (MC) intoxication (i.e., acute vomiting, diarrhea, severe thrombocytopenia, elevated alanine aminotransferase, hemorrhage). Successful supportive veterinary care was provided and led to survival of all but one patient. Confirmation of MC intoxication was made through interpretation of clinicopathological abnormalities, pathological examination of tissues, microscopy (vomitus), and analytical MC testing of antemortem/postmortem samples (vomitus, blood, urine, bile, liver, kidney, hair). Gross and microscopic examination of the deceased patient confirmed massive hepatic necrosis, mild multifocal renal tubular necrosis, and hemorrhage within multiple organ systems. Microscopy of a vomitus sample confirmed the presence of Microcystis. Three analytical MC testing approaches were used, including the MMPB (2-methyl-3-methoxy-4-phenylbutyric acid) technique, targeted congener analysis (e.g., liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry of MC-LR), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Total Adda MCs (as MMPB) were confirmed in the liver, bile, kidney, urine, and blood of the deceased dog. Urinalysis (MMPB) of one surviving dog showed a high level of MCs (32,000 ng mL&minus, 1) 1-day post exposure, with MCs detectable &gt, 2 months post exposure. Furthermore, hair from a surviving dog was positive for MMPB, illustrating another testable route of MC elimination in canines. The described cases represent the first use of urine as an antemortem, non-invasive specimen to diagnose microcystin toxicosis. Antemortem diagnostic testing to confirm MC intoxication cases, whether acute or chronic, is crucial for providing optimal supportive care and mitigating MC exposure.

Potentially harmful freshwater algal blooms of cyanobacteria (CHAB) are increasingly reported among US surface waters. Clear Lake in Lake County, CA is regularly impacted by CHABs during the spring...

β-Methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) has been identified as the potential cause of the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/parkinsonism–dementia complex (ALS/PDC) observed in the Chamorro people of Guam. The principal hypothesis for BMAA exposure and intoxication relies on the biomagnification of BMAA in flying fox specimens ingested by the Chamorro people. Although high levels of BMAA were quantitated in flying fox specimens utilizing liquid chromatography-fluorescence (LC-FL), there have not been any confirmatory analyses conducted to date. Therefore, a method for the tissue homogenization, extraction and direct analysis of BMAA (including BAMA, 2,4-DAB and AEG) was utilized. The approach was applied to mammalian dried skin and hair from various rodent species (negative controls) and archived flying fox (Pteropus mariannus mariannus) specimens. A positive control sample of homogenized mussel (Mytelius edulis) with native BMAA was used to verify the method. It was determined that the direct analysis using HILIC MS/MS required additional quality control in order to allow for the confident identification of BMAA due to the near co-elution of BAMA. BMAA was not present above 0.2 μg g−1 (free fraction) or 2.8 μg g−1 (total fraction) in the flying fox specimens. While analysis did not result in BMAA detection in flying fox or negative control samples, the positive control sample and spiked samples were successfully detected.

Toxigenic cyanobacteria are common components of Florida's surface waters and may pose a threat to their ecology and a risk to human health. The Lake County Water Authority, the Florida Department of Health, the St. Johns River Water Management District, the South Florida Water Management District, and the Lee County Health Department have all recently monitored local waters for cyanotoxins. In 2004, 6 central Florida lakes were sampled monthly for 12 months at centrally located open water sample sites. Toxin data (n = 72 for all toxin analyses) showed that microcystins (0.1–3.6 μg/L) were present in all 12 months; multiple bloom events per lake were observed; bloom concentrations ranged from 5–7,500 μg/L; and blooms occurred throughout the entire year. Cylindrospermopsin, ranging in concentration from 0.05 to 0.2 μg/L, was reported in 22% of all samples analyzed and occurred predominantly between August and December. Anatoxin-a was not reported in 2003/2004 but was identified in 2002/2003 (30%, ...

Algal samples were analyzed from 3 lakes, Crane Prairie Reservoir and Odell Lake in Oregon and an Anonymous North East System, using both standard taxonomic criteria for identification and DNA sequencing techniques. Two toxin-producing Anabaena populations, one with consistent akinete structure and another with variable akinete structure, were investigated. Samples were characterized based on several genetic markers (nifH, cpcBA-IGS, ITS1), toxins (anatoxin-a, saxitoxin, and microcystin) and morphological variation. Taxonomy within the Nostacales is based on vegetative and terminal cell structure, filament type and aggregation, and position and structure of heterocysts and akinetes. Many taxonomists rely heavily on akinete structure for microscopic identification. Identification from material preserved with Lugol's solution is challenging due to the breakup of colonies, cell distortion, and masking of pigment color. Based on morphological variation, the Crane Prairie and Odell populations were id...

Microcystin poisoning was diagnosed in a dog exposed to a Microcystis aeruginosa-dominated, freshwater, harmful algal bloom at Milford Lake, Kansas, which occurred during the summer of 2011. Lake water microcystin concentrations were determined at intervals during the summer, using competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and indicated extremely high, localized microcystin concentrations of up to 126,000 ng/ml. Multiple extraction and analysis techniques were used in the determination of free and total microcystins in vomitus and liver samples from the poisoned dog. Vomitus and liver contained microcystins, as determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and the presence of microcystin-LR was confirmed in vomitus and liver samples using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Major toxic effects in a dog presented for treatment on the day following exposure included fulminant liver failure and coagulopathy. The patient deteriorated rapidly despite aggressive treatment and was euthanized. Postmortem lesions included diffuse, acute, massive hepatic necrosis and hemorrhage, as well as acute necrosis of the renal tubular epithelium. A diagnosis of microcystin poisoning was based on the demonstration of M. aeruginosa and microcystin-LR in the lake water, as well as in vomitus produced early in the course of the poisoning; the presence of microcystin-LR in liver tissue; and a typical clinical course including gastroenteritis and fulminant liver failure.

Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) are highly toxic metabolic by-products of cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates. The filamentous cyanobacterium Lyngbya wollei produces a unique set of PSTs, including L . wollei toxins (LWT) 1–6. The accurate identification and quantification of PSTs from Lyngbya filaments is challenging, but critical for understanding toxin production and associated risk, as well as for providing baseline information regarding the potential for trophic transfer. This study evaluated several approaches for the extraction and analysis of PSTs from field-collected L . wollei dominated algal mats. Extraction of PSTs from lyophilized Lyngbya biomass was assessed utilizing hydrochloric acid and acetic acid at concentrations of 0.001–0.1 M. Toxin profiles were then compared utilizing two analysis techniques: pre-column oxidation (peroxide and periodate) High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with Fluorescence (FL) detection and LC coupled with Mass Spectrometry (MS). While both acid approaches efficiently extracted PSTs, hydrochloric acid was found to convert the less toxic LWT into the more toxic decarbamoylgonyautoxins 2&3 (dcGTX2&3) and decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX). In comparison, extraction with 0.1 M acetic acid preserved the original toxin profile and limited the presence of interfering co-extractants. Although pre-chromatographic oxidation with HPLC/FL was relatively easy to setup and utilize, the method did not resolve the individual constituents of the L. wollei derived PST profile. The LC/MS method allowed characterization of the PSTs derived from L. wollei , but without commercially available LWT 1–6 standards, quantitation was not possible for the LWT. In future work, evaluation of the risk associated with L. wollei derived PSTs will require commercially available standards of LWT 1–6 for accurate determinations of total PST content and potency.

We conducted a study of recreational exposure to microcystins among 81 children and adults planning recreational activities on either of three California reservoirs, two with significant, ongoing blooms of toxin-producing cyanobacteria, including Microcystis aeruginosa (Bloom Lakes), and one without a toxin-producing algal bloom (Control Lake). We analyzed water samples for algal taxonomy, microcystin concentrations, and potential respiratory viruses (adenoviruses and enteroviruses). We measured microcystins in personal air samples, nasal swabs, and blood samples. We interviewed study participants for demographic and health symptoms information. We found highly variable microcystin concentrations in Bloom Lakes (10 microg/L to500 microg/L); microcystin was not detected in the Control Lake. We did not detect adenoviruses or enteroviruses in any of the lakes. Low microcystin concentrations were found in personal air samples (0.1 ng/m(3) [limit of detection]-2.89 ng/m(3)) and nasal swabs (0.1 ng [limit of detection]-5 ng). Microcystin concentrations in the water-soluble fraction of all plasma samples were below the limit of detection (1.0 microg/L). Our findings indicate that recreational activities in water bodies that experience toxin-producing cyanobacterial blooms can generate aerosolized cyanotoxins, making inhalation a potential route of exposure. Future studies should include collecting nasal swabs to assess upper respiratory tract deposition of toxin-containing aerosols droplets.

The eutrophication of water resources, mainly attributed to antrophogenic activities such as sewage and agricultural runoffs, has led to a worldwide increase in the formation of cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (Cyano-HABs). Cyano-HABs have the ability to produce and release toxic compounds, commonly known as cyanotoxins, which comprise a potent threat for human and animal health as well as negative economical impacts. This chapter presents an overview on the sources and occurrence of species of cyanobacteria and their association with the production of cyanotoxins throughout the world. The main bloom-forming cyanobacteria that have been detected include Microcystis, Cylindrospermopsis, Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, and Planktothrix. The main cyanotoxins related to these cyanobacteria are microcystins, cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a and saxitoxins.